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Article ; Online: Persistent SARS-2 infections contribute to long COVID-19.

Jacobs, John J L

2021 Volume 149, Page(s) 110538

Abstract: ... mortality, the SARS-CoV-2 infection causes considerable and sustained morbidity, dubbed long COVID ... COVID-19 is a serious disease that has infected more than 40 million people. Beside significant ... This paper argues that some of this morbidity may be due to a persistent systemic infection. Persistent ...

Abstract	COVID-19 is a serious disease that has infected more than 40 million people. Beside significant mortality, the SARS-CoV-2 infection causes considerable and sustained morbidity, dubbed long COVID. This paper argues that some of this morbidity may be due to a persistent systemic infection. Persistent infection is indicated by continued virus RNA shedding. The virus' superantigen could overstimulate anti-virus immune responses, and thereby induce negative feedback loops, that paradoxically allow the virus to persist. The superantigen would induce strong immune response to any residual infection. This hypothesis suggests that clearing the virus infection completely would be an appropriate intervention against long COVID.
MeSH term(s)	Antibodies, Viral/immunology ; Antiviral Agents/therapeutic use ; Autoimmunity ; COVID-19/complications ; COVID-19/immunology ; COVID-19/virology ; Cytokine Release Syndrome ; Humans ; Inflammation ; Models, Theoretical ; SARS-CoV-2 ; Superantigens/immunology ; Virus Shedding
Chemical Substances	Antibodies, Viral ; Antiviral Agents ; Superantigens
Language	English
Publishing date	2021-02-16
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	193145-3
ISSN	1532-2777 ; 0306-9877
ISSN (online)	1532-2777
ISSN	0306-9877
DOI	10.1016/j.mehy.2021.110538
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Article ; Online: Clinical and genomic evaluations of a persistent fatal SARS-CoV-2 infection in a goods syndrome patient: a case report.

Tabarsi, Payam / Maleki, Ali / Abtahian, Zahra / Khabbaz, Alieh / Fereydouni, Zahra / Rezaie, Jahangir / Tavakoli, Mahsa / Sanati, Parastoo Yektay / Salehi-Vaziri, Mostafa

BMC infectious diseases

2024 Volume 24, Issue 1, Page(s) 216

Abstract: ... problematic condition, unusual persistent of infections such as non-dominant variant of SARS-Cov-2 could be ... The coronavirus disease of 2019 (COVID-19) resulted from an infection ... by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‑CoV‑2) which is the main cause of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS ...

Abstract	The coronavirus disease of 2019 (COVID-19) resulted from an infection by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‑CoV‑2) which is the main cause of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) in global population from 2019 on. It may contribute to higher rate of death among the patients with immunodeficiency based on recent reports. In addition, Good syndrome (GS) as a result of thymoma removal might cause in some long-lasting microbial infections. We described clinical aspects and viral mutations on a case of GS suffering from COVID-19. A 46-year-old man with fever, common respiratory disease symptoms and positive COVID-19 polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test, with the history of thymoma removal surgery was admitted to Masih Daneshvari Hospital, Tehran, Iran. Lung radiographs and oxygen saturation measurement disclosed considerable implication resulted in application of several anti-microbial medication. The delta variant (B.1.617.2 (21 J Clade)) was the strain isolated from the patient by sequencing methods done by the COVID-19 National Reference Laboratory (CNRL), Pasteur Institute of Iran, while the dominant strain circulated mostly among population was Omicron (B.1.1.529) at the time of sampling. Unfortunately, the patient had passed away a month later by sudden respiratory failure progressed in refractory septic shock. Despite the fact that opportunistic infections may lead the GS patients to a major health problematic condition, unusual persistent of infections such as non-dominant variant of SARS-Cov-2 could be observed through the disease timeline. Therefore, a fully screening of thymoma plus intra-host evolution monitoring of SARS-CoV-2 is highly recommended in immunocompromised patients.
MeSH term(s)	Male ; Humans ; Middle Aged ; COVID-19 ; SARS-CoV-2/genetics ; Thymoma/complications ; Thymoma/genetics ; Iran ; Genomics ; Primary Immunodeficiency Diseases ; Thymus Neoplasms
Language	English
Publishing date	2024-02-19
Publishing country	England
Document type	Case Reports ; Journal Article
ZDB-ID	2041550-3
ISSN	1471-2334 ; 1471-2334
ISSN (online)	1471-2334
ISSN	1471-2334
DOI	10.1186/s12879-024-09105-6
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Article ; Online: Clearance of persistent SARS-CoV-2 associates with increased neutralizing antibodies in advanced HIV disease post-ART initiation.

Karim, Farina / Riou, Catherine / Bernstein, Mallory / Jule, Zesuliwe / Lustig, Gila / van Graan, Strauss / Keeton, Roanne S / Upton, Janine-Lee / Ganga, Yashica / Khan, Khadija / Reedoy, Kajal / Mazibuko, Matilda / Govender, Katya / Thambu, Kershnee / Ngcobo, Nokuthula / Venter, Elizabeth / Makhado, Zanele / Hanekom, Willem / von Gottberg, Anne /

Hoque, Monjurul / Karim, Quarraisha Abdool / Abdool Karim, Salim S / Manickchund, Nithendra / Magula, Nombulelo / Gosnell, Bernadett I / Lessells, Richard J / Moore, Penny L / Burgers, Wendy A / de Oliveira, Tulio / Moosa, Mahomed-Yunus S / Sigal, Alex

Nature communications

2024 Volume 15, Issue 1, Page(s) 2360

Abstract: ... required for clearance, although it is necessary for an effective vaccine response. Persistent SARS-CoV-2 ... with clearance of long-term SARS-CoV-2 infection in HIV-mediated immunosuppression after suppressive ... SARS-CoV-2 clearance requires adaptive immunity but the contribution of neutralizing antibodies and ...

Abstract	SARS-CoV-2 clearance requires adaptive immunity but the contribution of neutralizing antibodies and T cells in different immune states is unclear. Here we ask which adaptive immune responses associate with clearance of long-term SARS-CoV-2 infection in HIV-mediated immunosuppression after suppressive antiretroviral therapy (ART) initiation. We assembled a cohort of SARS-CoV-2 infected people in South Africa (n = 994) including participants with advanced HIV disease characterized by immunosuppression due to T cell depletion. Fifty-four percent of participants with advanced HIV disease had prolonged SARS-CoV-2 infection (>1 month). In the five vaccinated participants with advanced HIV disease tested, SARS-CoV-2 clearance associates with emergence of neutralizing antibodies but not SARS-CoV-2 specific CD8 T cells, while CD4 T cell responses were not determined due to low cell numbers. Further, complete HIV suppression is not required for clearance, although it is necessary for an effective vaccine response. Persistent SARS-CoV-2 infection led to SARS-CoV-2 evolution, including virus with extensive neutralization escape in a Delta variant infected participant. The results provide evidence that neutralizing antibodies are required for SARS-CoV-2 clearance in HIV-mediated immunosuppression recovery, and that suppressive ART is necessary to curtail evolution of co-infecting pathogens to reduce individual health consequences as well as public health risk linked with generation of escape mutants.
MeSH term(s)	Humans ; SARS-CoV-2 ; COVID-19 ; HIV Infections/drug therapy ; Antibodies, Neutralizing ; Antibodies, Viral
Chemical Substances	Antibodies, Neutralizing ; Antibodies, Viral
Language	English
Publishing date	2024-03-15
Publishing country	England
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	2553671-0
ISSN	2041-1723 ; 2041-1723
ISSN (online)	2041-1723
ISSN	2041-1723
DOI	10.1038/s41467-024-46673-2
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Article ; Online: Persistent SARS-CoV-2 Infection, EBV, HHV-6 and Other Factors May Contribute to Inflammation and Autoimmunity in Long COVID.

Vojdani, Aristo / Vojdani, Elroy / Saidara, Evan / Maes, Michael

Viruses

2023 Volume 15, Issue 2

Abstract: A novel syndrome called long-haul COVID or long COVID is increasingly recognized in a significant ... percentage of individuals within a few months after infection with SARS-CoV-2. This disorder is characterized ... endocrine and systemic. Some overlapping symptomatologies exist between long COVID and ...

Abstract	A novel syndrome called long-haul COVID or long COVID is increasingly recognized in a significant percentage of individuals within a few months after infection with SARS-CoV-2. This disorder is characterized by a wide range of persisting, returning or even new but related symptoms that involve different tissues and organs, including respiratory, cardiac, vascular, gastrointestinal, musculo-skeletal, neurological, endocrine and systemic. Some overlapping symptomatologies exist between long COVID and myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS). Very much like with long ME/CFS, infections with herpes family viruses, immune dysregulation, and the persistence of inflammation have been reported as the most common pattern for the development of long COVID. This review describes several factors and determinants of long COVID that have been proposed, elaborating mainly on viral persistence, reactivation of latent viruses such as Epstein-Barr virus and human herpesvirus 6 which are also associated with the pathology of ME/CFS, viral superantigen activation of the immune system, disturbance in the gut microbiome, and multiple tissue damage and autoimmunity. Based on these factors, we propose diagnostic strategies such as the measurement of IgG and IgM antibodies against SARS-CoV-2, EBV, HHV-6, viral superantigens, gut microbiota, and biomarkers of autoimmunity to better understand and manage this multi-factorial disorder that continues to affect millions of people in the world.
MeSH term(s)	Humans ; Post-Acute COVID-19 Syndrome ; COVID-19 ; Herpesvirus 4, Human ; Herpesvirus 6, Human ; Autoimmunity ; Fatigue Syndrome, Chronic ; Epstein-Barr Virus Infections/complications ; SARS-CoV-2 ; Inflammation
Language	English
Publishing date	2023-01-31
Publishing country	Switzerland
Document type	Journal Article ; Review
ZDB-ID	2516098-9
ISSN	1999-4915 ; 1999-4915
ISSN (online)	1999-4915
ISSN	1999-4915
DOI	10.3390/v15020400
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Article ; Online: Persistent symptoms after COVID-19 are not associated with differential SARS-CoV-2 antibody or T cell immunity.

Altmann, Daniel M / Reynolds, Catherine J / Joy, George / Otter, Ashley D / Gibbons, Joseph M / Pade, Corinna / Swadling, Leo / Maini, Mala K / Brooks, Tim / Semper, Amanda / McKnight, Áine / Noursadeghi, Mahdad / Manisty, Charlotte / Treibel, Thomas A / Moon, James C / Boyton, Rosemary J

Nature communications

2023 Volume 14, Issue 1, Page(s) 5139

Abstract: Among the unknowns in decoding the pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 persistent symptoms in Long Covid is ... vaccine doses, comparing those with persistent symptoms to those without, again shows similar SARS-CoV-2 ... following mild or asymptomatic acute infection are unlikely to have contributed to Long Covid causality ...

Abstract	Among the unknowns in decoding the pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 persistent symptoms in Long Covid is whether there is a contributory role of abnormal immunity during acute infection. It has been proposed that Long Covid is a consequence of either an excessive or inadequate initial immune response. Here, we analyze SARS-CoV-2 humoral and cellular immunity in 86 healthcare workers with laboratory confirmed mild or asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection during the first wave. Symptom questionnaires allow stratification into those with persistent symptoms and those without for comparison. During the period up to 18-weeks post-infection, we observe no difference in antibody responses to spike RBD or nucleoprotein, virus neutralization, or T cell responses. Also, there is no difference in the profile of antibody waning. Analysis at 1-year, after two vaccine doses, comparing those with persistent symptoms to those without, again shows similar SARS-CoV-2 immunity. Thus, quantitative differences in these measured parameters of SARS-CoV-2 adaptive immunity following mild or asymptomatic acute infection are unlikely to have contributed to Long Covid causality. ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT04318314).
MeSH term(s)	Humans ; Antibodies, Viral ; Asymptomatic Infections ; COVID-19 ; Post-Acute COVID-19 Syndrome ; SARS-CoV-2 ; T-Lymphocytes
Chemical Substances	Antibodies, Viral
Language	English
Publishing date	2023-08-23
Publishing country	England
Document type	Clinical Study ; Journal Article ; Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
ZDB-ID	2553671-0
ISSN	2041-1723 ; 2041-1723
ISSN (online)	2041-1723
ISSN	2041-1723
DOI	10.1038/s41467-023-40460-1
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Article ; Online: High number of SARS-CoV-2 persistent infections uncovered through genetic analysis of samples from a large community-based surveillance study

Ghafari, Mahan / Hall, Matthew / Golubchik, Tanya / Ayoubkhani, Daniel / House, Thomas / MacIntyre-Cockett, George / Fryer, Helen / Thomson, Laura / Nurtay, Anel / Buck, David / Green, Angie / Trebes, Amy / Piazza, Paolo / Lonie, Lorne J / Studley, Ruth / Rourke, Emma / Smith, Darren / Bashton, Matthew / Nelson, Andrew /

Crown, Matthew / McCann, Clare / Young, Gregory R / dos Santos, Rui Andre Nunes / Richards, Zack / Tariq, Adnan / Cahuantzi, Roberto / Wellcome Sanger Institute COVID-19 Surveillance Team / COVID-19 Infection Survey Group / The COVID-19 Genomics UK (COG-UK) Consortium / Barrett, Jeff / Fraser, Christophe / Bonsall, David / Walker, Ann Sarah / Lythgoe, Katrina

medRxiv

Abstract: ... of self-reporting Long Covid compared to the infected controls, and we estimate that 0.09-0.5% of SARS-CoV-2 ... Persistent severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infections may act as viral ... to cases with post-acute Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) sequelae (Long Covid) 9,10 ...

Abstract	Persistent severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infections may act as viral reservoirs that could seed future outbreaks 1-5, give rise to highly divergent lineages 6-8, and contribute to cases with post-acute Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) sequelae (Long Covid) 9,10. However, the population prevalence of persistent infections, their viral load kinetics, and evolutionary dynamics over the course of infections remain largely unknown. We identified 381 infections lasting at least 30 days, of which 54 lasted at least 60 days. These persistently infected individuals had more than 50% higher odds of self-reporting Long Covid compared to the infected controls, and we estimate that 0.09-0.5% of SARS-CoV-2 infections can become persistent and last for at least 60 days. In nearly 70% of the persistent infections we identified, there were long periods during which there were no consensus changes in virus sequences, consistent with prolonged presence of non-replicating virus. Our findings also suggest reinfections with the same major lineage are rare and that many persistent infections are characterised by relapsing viral load dynamics. Furthermore, we found a strong signal for positive selection during persistent infections, with multiple amino acid substitutions in the Spike and ORF1ab genes emerging independently in different individuals, including mutations that are lineage-defining for SARS-CoV-2 variants, at target sites for several monoclonal antibodies, and commonly found in immunocompromised patients 11-14. This work has significant implications for understanding and characterising SARS-CoV-2 infection, epidemiology, and evolution.
Keywords	covid19
Language	English
Publishing date	2023-01-30
Publisher	Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press
Document type	Article ; Online
DOI	10.1101/2023.01.29.23285160
Database	COVID19

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Article ; Online: High number of SARS-CoV-2 persistent infections uncovered through genetic analysis of samples from a large community-based surveillance study

Crown, Matthew / McCann, Clare / Young, Gregory R / de Santos, Rui Andre Nunes / Richards, Zack / Tariq, Adnan / Cahuantzi, Roberto / Wellcome Sanger Institute COVID-19 Surveillance Team / COVID-19 Infection Survey Group / The COVID-19 Genomics UK (COG-UK) consortium / Barrett, Jeff / Fraser, Christophe / Bonsall, David / Walker, Sarah / Lythgoe, Katrina A

medRxiv

Abstract	Persistent severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infections may act as viral reservoirs that could seed future outbreaks 1-5, give rise to highly divergent lineages 6-8, and contribute to cases with post-acute Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) sequelae (Long Covid) 9,10. However, the population prevalence of persistent infections, their viral load kinetics, and evolutionary dynamics over the course of infections remain largely unknown. We identified 381 infections lasting at least 30 days, of which 54 lasted at least 60 days. These persistently infected individuals had more than 50% higher odds of self-reporting Long Covid compared to the infected controls, and we estimate that 0.09-0.5% of SARS-CoV-2 infections can become persistent and last for at least 60 days. In nearly 70% of the persistent infections we identified, there were long periods during which there were no consensus changes in virus sequences, consistent with prolonged presence of non-replicating virus. Our findings also suggest reinfections with the same major lineage are rare and that many persistent infections are characterised by relapsing viral load dynamics. Furthermore, we found a strong signal for positive selection during persistent infections, with multiple amino acid substitutions in the Spike and ORF1ab genes emerging independently in different individuals, including mutations that are lineage-defining for SARS-CoV-2 variants, at target sites for several monoclonal antibodies, and commonly found in immunocompromised patients 11-14. This work has significant implications for understanding and characterising SARS-CoV-2 infection, epidemiology, and evolution.
Keywords	covid19
Language	English
Publishing date	2023-01-30
Publisher	Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press
Document type	Article ; Online
DOI	10.1101/2023.01.29.23285160
Database	COVID19

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Article ; Online: Omicron variants escape the persistent SARS-CoV-2-specific antibody response in 2-year COVID-19 convalescents regardless of vaccination.

Wang, Miao / Zhou, Bing / Fan, Qing / Zhou, Xinrong / Liao, Xuejiao / Lin, Jingyan / Ma, Zhenghua / Dong, Jingke / Wang, Haiyan / Ge, Xiangyang / Ju, Bin / Zhang, Zheng

Emerging microbes & infections

2022 , Page(s) 1–30

Abstract: With the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic and the emergence of various SARS-CoV-2 variants ... the durability, potency, and susceptibility to immune evasion of SARS-CoV-2-specific antibody in COVID-19 ... memory, contributing to the development of immunization strategy against SARS-CoV-2 variants ...

Abstract	With the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic and the emergence of various SARS-CoV-2 variants, a comprehensive evaluation of long-term efficacy of antibody response in convalescent individuals is urgently needed. Several longitudinal studies had reported the antibody dynamics after SARS-CoV-2 acute infection, but the follow-up was mostly limited to 1 year or 18 months at the maximum. In this study, we investigated the durability, potency, and susceptibility to immune evasion of SARS-CoV-2-specific antibody in COVID-19 convalescents for 2 years after discharge. These results showed the persistent antibody-dependent immunity could protect against the WT and Delta variant to some extent. However, the Omicron variants (BA.1, BA.2, and BA.4/5) largely escaped this preexisting immunity in recovered individuals. Furthermore, we revealed that inactivated vaccines (BBIBP-CorV, CoronaVac, or KCONVAC) could improve the plasma neutralization and help to maintain the broadly neutralizing antibodies at a certain level. Notably, with the time-dependent decline of antibody, 1-dose or 2-dose vaccination strategy seemed not to be enough to provide immune protection against the emerging variants. Overall, these results facilitated our understanding of SARS-CoV-2-induced antibody memory, contributing to the development of immunization strategy against SARS-CoV-2 variants for such a large number of COVID-19 survivors.
Language	English
Publishing date	2022-11-29
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	2681359-2
ISSN	2222-1751 ; 2222-1751
ISSN (online)	2222-1751
ISSN	2222-1751
DOI	10.1080/22221751.2022.2151381
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Article ; Online: Substance P and Prokineticin-2 are overexpressed in olfactory neurons and play differential roles in persons with persistent post-COVID-19 olfactory dysfunction.

Schirinzi, Tommaso / Lattanzi, Roberta / Maftei, Daniela / Grillo, Piergiorgio / Zenuni, Henri / Boffa, Laura / Albanese, Maria / Simonetta, Clara / Bovenzi, Roberta / Maurizi, Riccardo / Loccisano, Laura / Vincenzi, Martina / Greco, Antonio / Di Girolamo, Stefano / Mercuri, Nicola B / Passali, Francesco M / Severini, Cinzia

Brain, behavior, and immunity

2022 Volume 108, Page(s) 302–308

Abstract: ... in the acute phases of the SARS-CoV-2 infection have been figured out, reasons for persistent OD are still ... of patients to understand mechanisms of persistent post-COVID-19 OD. ONs were collected by non-invasive ... brushing from ten patients with persistent post-COVID-19 OD and ten healthy controls. Gene expression ...

Abstract	Persistent olfactory dysfunction (OD) is one of the most complaining and worrying complications of long COVID-19 because of the potential long-term neurological consequences. While causes of OD in the acute phases of the SARS-CoV-2 infection have been figured out, reasons for persistent OD are still unclear. Here we investigated the activity of two inflammatory pathways tightly linked with olfaction pathophysiology, namely Substance P (SP) and Prokineticin-2 (PK2), directly within the olfactory neurons (ONs) of patients to understand mechanisms of persistent post-COVID-19 OD. ONs were collected by non-invasive brushing from ten patients with persistent post-COVID-19 OD and ten healthy controls. Gene expression levels of SP, Neurokinin receptor 1, Interleukin-1β (IL-1β), PK2, PK2 receptors type 1 and 2, and Prokineticin-2-long peptide were measured in ONs by Real Time-PCR in both the groups, and correlated with residual olfaction. Immunofluorescence staining was also performed to quantify SP and PK2 proteins. OD patients, compared to controls, exhibited increased levels of both SP and PK2 in ONs, the latter proportional to residual olfaction. This work provided unprecedented, preliminary evidence that both SP and PK2 pathways may have a role in persistent post-COVID-19 OD. Namely, if the sustained activation of SP, lasting months after infection's resolution, might foster chronic inflammation and contribute to hyposmia, the PK2 expression could instead support the smell recovery.
MeSH term(s)	Humans ; COVID-19 ; Neurons ; Olfaction Disorders ; Post-Acute COVID-19 Syndrome ; SARS-CoV-2 ; Smell ; Substance P
Chemical Substances	Substance P (33507-63-0) ; PROK2 protein, human
Language	English
Publishing date	2022-12-19
Publishing country	Netherlands
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	639219-2
ISSN	1090-2139 ; 0889-1591
ISSN (online)	1090-2139
ISSN	0889-1591
DOI	10.1016/j.bbi.2022.12.017
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Article ; Online: Long-term dynamics of natural killer cells in response to SARS-CoV-2 vaccination: Persistently enhanced activity postvaccination.

Mele, Dalila / Ottolini, Sabrina / Lombardi, Andrea / Conteianni, Daniela / Bandera, Alessandra / Oliviero, Barbara / Mantovani, Stefania / Cassaniti, Irene / Baldanti, Fausto / Gori, Andrea / Mondelli, Mario U / Varchetta, Stefania

Journal of medical virology

2024 Volume 96, Issue 4, Page(s) e29585

Abstract: ... light on the role of NK cells in contributing to SARS-CoV-2 vaccine-induced immune protection and pave ... following SARS-CoV-2 vaccination remains poorly understood. To address this matter, we conducted ... a comprehensive analysis of NK cell phenotype and function in SARS-CoV-2 unexposed individuals who received ...

Abstract	Natural Killer (NK) cells play a significant role in the early defense against virus infections and cancer. Recent studies have demonstrated the involvement of NK cells in both the induction and effector phases of vaccine-induced immunity in various contexts. However, their role in shaping immune responses following SARS-CoV-2 vaccination remains poorly understood. To address this matter, we conducted a comprehensive analysis of NK cell phenotype and function in SARS-CoV-2 unexposed individuals who received the BNT162b2 vaccine. We employed a longitudinal study design and utilized a panel of 53 15-mer overlapping peptides covering the receptor binding domain (RBD) of the SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein to assess NK cell function at 0 and 20 days following the first vaccine, and 30 and 240 days following booster. Additionally, we evaluated the levels of total IgG anti-Spike antibodies and their potential neutralizing ability. Our findings revealed an increased NK cell activity upon re-exposure to RBD when combined with IL12 and IL18 several months after booster. Concurrently, we observed that the frequencies of NKG2A + NK cells declined over the course of the follow-up period, while NKG2C increased only in CMV positive subjects. The finding that NK cell functions are inducible 9 months after vaccination upon re-exposure to RBD and cytokines, sheds light on the role of NK cells in contributing to SARS-CoV-2 vaccine-induced immune protection and pave the way to further studies in the field.
MeSH term(s)	Humans ; COVID-19 Vaccines ; SARS-CoV-2 ; BNT162 Vaccine ; Longitudinal Studies ; COVID-19/prevention & control ; Vaccination ; Killer Cells, Natural ; Antibodies, Viral ; Antibodies, Neutralizing ; Spike Glycoprotein, Coronavirus
Chemical Substances	spike protein, SARS-CoV-2 ; COVID-19 Vaccines ; BNT162 Vaccine ; Antibodies, Viral ; Antibodies, Neutralizing ; Spike Glycoprotein, Coronavirus
Language	English
Publishing date	2024-04-02
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	752392-0
ISSN	1096-9071 ; 0146-6615
ISSN (online)	1096-9071
ISSN	0146-6615
DOI	10.1002/jmv.29585
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