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Article ; Online: Infection control and biosecurity in equine disease control.

Weese, J S

2014 Volume 46, Issue 6, Page(s) 654–660

Abstract: ... infection control and biosecurity in horses is limited, yet a variety of practical infection prevention and ... and biosecurity, and indeed the need for measures to control infectious diseases, is the foundation ... for successful infection prevention and control. ...

Abstract	Infectious diseases are an important cause of morbidity and mortality in horses, along with economic costs and broader impacts associated with the loss of members of a species that generates income, acts as a working animal and is a companion. Endemic diseases continue to challenge, emerging diseases are an ever-present threat and outbreaks can be both destructive and disruptive. While infectious diseases can never be completely prevented, measures can be introduced to restrict the entry of pathogens into a population or limit the implications of the presence of a pathogen. Objective research regarding infection control and biosecurity in horses is limited, yet a variety of practical infection prevention and control measures can be used. Unfortunately, infection control can be challenging, because of the nature of the equine industry (e.g. frequent horse movement) and endemic pathogens, but also because of lack of understanding or motivation to try to improve practices. Recognition of the basic concepts of infection control and biosecurity, and indeed the need for measures to control infectious diseases, is the foundation for successful infection prevention and control.
MeSH term(s)	Animals ; Communicable Disease Control/methods ; Communicable Diseases/veterinary ; Disease Outbreaks/prevention & control ; Horse Diseases/microbiology ; Horse Diseases/mortality ; Horse Diseases/prevention & control ; Horses ; Humans
Keywords	covid19
Language	English
Publishing date	2014-06-20
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article ; Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't ; Review
ZDB-ID	41606-x
ISSN	2042-3306 ; 0425-1644
ISSN (online)	2042-3306
ISSN	0425-1644
DOI	10.1111/evj.12295
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Article: Infection control and biosecurity in equine disease control

Weese, J. S

Equine veterinary journal. 2014 Nov., v. 46, no. 6

2014

Abstract	Infectious diseases are an important cause of morbidity and mortality in horses, along with economic costs and broader impacts associated with the loss of members of a species that generates income, acts as a working animal and is a companion. Endemic diseases continue to challenge, emerging diseases are an ever‐present threat and outbreaks can be both destructive and disruptive. While infectious diseases can never be completely prevented, measures can be introduced to restrict the entry of pathogens into a population or limit the implications of the presence of a pathogen. Objective research regarding infection control and biosecurity in horses is limited, yet a variety of practical infection prevention and control measures can be used. Unfortunately, infection control can be challenging, because of the nature of the equine industry (e.g. frequent horse movement) and endemic pathogens, but also because of lack of understanding or motivation to try to improve practices. Recognition of the basic concepts of infection control and biosecurity, and indeed the need for measures to control infectious diseases, is the foundation for successful infection prevention and control.
Keywords	biosecurity ; control methods ; disease control ; economic costs ; emerging diseases ; horse diseases ; horses ; income ; industry ; morbidity ; mortality ; motivation ; pathogens ; pets ; working animals ; covid19
Language	English
Dates of publication	2014-11
Size	p. 654-660.
Publishing place	British Equine Veterinary Association.
Document type	Article
ZDB-ID	41606-x
ISSN	0425-1644
ISSN	0425-1644
DOI	10.1111/evj.12295
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Article ; Online: Clinical impact, diagnosis and control of Equine Herpesvirus-1 infection in Europe.

Carvelli, Andrea / Nielsen, Søren Saxmose / Paillot, Romain / Broglia, Alessandro / Kohnle, Lisa

EFSA journal. European Food Safety Authority

2022 Volume 20, Issue 4, Page(s) e07230

Abstract: Equine herpesvirus-1 (EHV-1) can affect the entire equine sector in EU, and the large outbreak ... possibly due to a delay in diagnosis and late application of biosecurity measures. The recommended and most ... These can reactivate producing clinical disease, which can include respiratory, abortive and possibly fatal ...

Abstract	Equine herpesvirus-1 (EHV-1) can affect the entire equine sector in EU, and the large outbreak reported in 2021 in Spain drew attention to the needs of the European Commission for scientific advice for the assessment of EHV-1 infection within the framework of Animal Health Law. EHV-1 is considered endemic in the EU; its main risk is linked to the characteristic of producing latent life-long infections. These can reactivate producing clinical disease, which can include respiratory, abortive and possibly fatal neurological forms. From the epidemiological and genomic viewpoint, there are no specific neuropathogenic EHV-1 strains; the respiratory, reproductive and neurological signs are not found to be strain-specific. This was also the case of the virus that caused the outbreak in Valencia (Spain) in 2021, which was genetically closely related to other viruses circulating before in Europe, and did not present the so-called neuropathogenic genotype. The outbreak reported in Valencia was followed by wide geographic spread of the virus possibly due to a delay in diagnosis and late application of biosecurity measures. The recommended and most sensitive diagnostic test for detecting EHV-1 is PCR performed on swabs collected according to the type of clinical signs. Serological assays on paired blood samples can help to detect a recent infection, while no diagnostic methods are available to detect EHV-1 latent infections. Safe movements of horses can be ensured at premovement phase by testing and issuing health certificates, and by isolating animals upon arrival at new premises with regular health monitoring. In case of suspicion, movements should be forbidden and EHV-1 infection early detected/confirmed by validated diagnostic tools. During outbreaks, no movements should be allowed until 21 days after the detection of the last case. In general, vaccination against EHV-1 should be promoted, although this offers limited protection against the neurological form of the disease.
Language	English
Publishing date	2022-04-06
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	2540248-1
ISSN	1831-4732 ; 1831-4732
ISSN (online)	1831-4732
ISSN	1831-4732
DOI	10.2903/j.efsa.2022.7230
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Article ; Online: Understanding the associations between on-farm biosecurity practice and equine influenza infection during the 2007 outbreak in Australia.

Firestone, Simon M / Lewis, Fraser I / Schemann, Kathrin / Ward, Michael P / Toribio, Jenny-Ann L M L / Dhand, Navneet K

Preventive veterinary medicine

2013 Volume 110, Issue 1, Page(s) 28–36

Abstract: ... risk factors and horse premises infection status during the first 7 weeks of the 2007 equine influenza outbreak ... In a previous premises-level case-control study of the 2007 equine influenza outbreak in Australia ... each of the personal biosecurity measures implemented by horse premises owners and managers in the face of the outbreak ...

Abstract	In a previous premises-level case-control study of the 2007 equine influenza outbreak in Australia, the protective effect of several variables representing on-farm biosecurity practices was identified. However, using logistic regression it was not possible to definitively identify individual effects and associations between each of the personal biosecurity measures implemented by horse premises owners and managers in the face of the outbreak. In this study we apply Bayesian network modelling to identify the complex web of associations between these variables, horse premises infection status and other premises-level covariates. We focussed this analysis primarily on the inter-relationship between the nine variables representing on-farm personal biosecurity measures (of people residing on the premises and those visiting), and all other variables from the final logistic regression model of our previous analysis. Exact structure discovery was used to identify the globally optimal model from across the landscape of all directed acyclic graphs possible for our dataset. Bootstrapping was used to adjust the model for over-fitting. Our final Bayesian graphic network model included 18 variables linked by 23 arcs, each arc analogous to a single multivariable generalised linear model, combined in a probabilistically coherent way. Amongst the personal biosecurity measures, having a footbath in place, certain practices of visitors (hand-washing, changing clothes and shoes) in contact with the horses, and the regularity of horse handling were statistically associated with premises infection status. The results of this in-depth analysis provide new insight into the complex web of direct and indirect associations between risk factors and horse premises infection status during the first 7 weeks of the 2007 equine influenza outbreak in Australia. In future outbreaks, unnecessary contact and handling of horses should be avoided, especially by those coming from off the premises. Prior to any such contact, persons handling horses should use a footbath (if present), change their clothes and shoes, and wash their hands.
MeSH term(s)	Animal Husbandry/methods ; Animals ; Attitude to Health ; Australia ; Bayes Theorem ; Case-Control Studies ; Horse Diseases/prevention & control ; Horse Diseases/virology ; Horses ; Influenza A Virus, H3N8 Subtype/physiology ; Linear Models ; Logistic Models ; Models, Biological ; Orthomyxoviridae Infections/prevention & control ; Orthomyxoviridae Infections/veterinary ; Orthomyxoviridae Infections/virology ; Risk Factors ; Surveys and Questionnaires
Language	English
Publishing date	2013-05-15
Publishing country	Netherlands
Document type	Journal Article ; Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
ZDB-ID	43399-8
ISSN	1873-1716 ; 0167-5877
ISSN (online)	1873-1716
ISSN	0167-5877
DOI	10.1016/j.prevetmed.2013.02.003
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Article: Understanding the associations between on-farm biosecurity practice and equine influenza infection during the 2007 outbreak in Australia

Firestone, Simon M / Fraser I. Lewis / Jenny-Ann L.M.L. Toribio / Kathrin Schemann / Michael P. Ward / Navneet K. Dhand

Preventive veterinary medicine. 2013 May 15, v. 110, no. 1

2013

Abstract	In a previous premises-level case-control study of the 2007 equine influenza outbreak in Australia, the protective effect of several variables representing on-farm biosecurity practices was identified. However, using logistic regression it was not possible to definitively identify individual effects and associations between each of the personal biosecurity measures implemented by horse premises owners and managers in the face of the outbreak. In this study we apply Bayesian network modelling to identify the complex web of associations between these variables, horse premises infection status and other premises-level covariates.We focussed this analysis primarily on the inter-relationship between the nine variables representing on-farm personal biosecurity measures (of people residing on the premises and those visiting), and all other variables from the final logistic regression model of our previous analysis. Exact structure discovery was used to identify the globally optimal model from across the landscape of all directed acyclic graphs possible for our dataset. Bootstrapping was used to adjust the model for over-fitting.Our final Bayesian graphic network model included 18 variables linked by 23 arcs, each arc analogous to a single multivariable generalised linear model, combined in a probabilistically coherent way. Amongst the personal biosecurity measures, having a footbath in place, certain practices of visitors (hand-washing, changing clothes and shoes) in contact with the horses, and the regularity of horse handling were statistically associated with premises infection status.The results of this in-depth analysis provide new insight into the complex web of direct and indirect associations between risk factors and horse premises infection status during the first 7 weeks of the 2007 equine influenza outbreak in Australia. In future outbreaks, unnecessary contact and handling of horses should be avoided, especially by those coming from off the premises. Prior to any such contact, persons handling horses should use a footbath (if present), change their clothes and shoes, and wash their hands.
MeSH term(s)	Animal Husbandry/methods ; Animals ; Attitude to Health ; Bayes Theorem ; Case-Control Studies ; Horse Diseases/prevention & control/virology ; Horses ; Influenza A Virus, H3N8 Subtype/physiology ; Linear Models ; Logistic Models ; Models, Biological ; Orthomyxoviridae Infections/prevention & control/veterinary/virology ; Questionnaires ; Risk Factors
Keywords	biosecurity ; case-control studies ; clothing ; equine influenza ; hand washing ; horses ; landscapes ; linear models ; logit analysis ; managers ; protective effect ; risk factors ; Australia
Language	English
Dates of publication	2013-0515
Size	p. 28-36.
Publishing place	Elsevier B.V.
Document type	Article
ZDB-ID	43399-8
ISSN	1873-1716 ; 0167-5877
ISSN (online)	1873-1716
ISSN	0167-5877
DOI	10.1016/j.prevetmed.2013.02.003
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Article: Detection and management of an outbreak of equine herpesvirus type 1 infection and associated neurological disease in a veterinary teaching hospital.

Goehring, L S / Landolt, G A / Morley, P S

Journal of veterinary internal medicine

2010 Volume 24, Issue 5, Page(s) 1176–1183

Abstract: ... EHV-1) infections, awareness and control measures used to control outbreaks are important issues ... for diagnostic evaluation and treatment under strict infection control procedures. We describe the occurrence and ... that is separate from other horses by strictly enforced biosecurity and isolation procedures. Serial ...

Abstract	Background: Because of the serious disease sequelae associated with equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1) infections, awareness and control measures used to control outbreaks are important issues for all horse populations. Objectives: Describe the occurrence and management of an outbreak of EHV-1 infection at a veterinary hospital. Animals: Horses hospitalized at a referral veterinary hospital. Methods: A horse with myeloencephalopathy associated with EHV-1 infection (EHM) was admitted for diagnostic evaluation and treatment under strict infection control procedures. We describe the occurrence and management of a nosocomial outbreak of EHV-1 infections associated with admission of this patient. Results: Despite institution of rigorous biosecurity precautions at the time of admission of the index case, EHV-1 infections spread to 6 other horses that were hospitalized at the James L. Voss Veterinary Teaching Hopsital, including 2 that served as sources of infection for horses on their home premises after discharge. Infection with EHV-1 was confirmed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and by seroconversion documented by glycoprotein G ELISA. A voluntary quarantine was imposed and admissions were restricted to prevent additional horses from being exposed. Quarantine duration was abbreviated by serial testing of all horses with PCR. Conclusions and clinical importance: These findings illustrate the contagious disease risk that can accompany management of horses with EHM. Horses with active nasal EHV-1 shedding should be isolated in an airspace that is separate from other horses by strictly enforced biosecurity and isolation procedures. Serial testing with PCR may be a useful adjunct to determine when the risk of transmission has been minimized.
MeSH term(s)	Acyclovir/analogs & derivatives ; Acyclovir/therapeutic use ; Animals ; Antiviral Agents/therapeutic use ; Colorado/epidemiology ; Cross Infection/epidemiology ; Cross Infection/veterinary ; Disease Outbreaks/veterinary ; Encephalomyelitis/veterinary ; Encephalomyelitis/virology ; Female ; Herpesvirus 1, Equid/isolation & purification ; Horse Diseases/epidemiology ; Horse Diseases/transmission ; Horse Diseases/virology ; Horses ; Hospitals, Animal ; Infection Control ; Male ; Schools, Veterinary ; Valine/analogs & derivatives ; Valine/therapeutic use
Chemical Substances	Antiviral Agents ; Valine (HG18B9YRS7) ; valacyclovir (MZ1IW7Q79D) ; Acyclovir (X4HES1O11F)
Language	English
Publishing date	2010-09
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	92798-3
ISSN	1939-1676 ; 0891-6640
ISSN (online)	1939-1676
ISSN	0891-6640
DOI	10.1111/j.1939-1676.2010.0558.x
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Article: An overview of infection control strategies for equine facilities, with an emphasis on veterinary hospitals.

Traub-Dargatz, Josie L / Dargatz, David A / Morley, Paul S / Dunowska, Magda

The Veterinary clinics of North America. Equine practice

2004 Volume 20, Issue 3, Page(s) 507–20, v

Abstract: ... In developing an infection control, biosecurity, or biocontainment plan, it is important to decide which agent ... to which each of these strategies is applied varies according to the attributes of the disease agent and the population at risk ... Infection control entails preventing or minimizing exposure to infectious agents or optimizing ...

Abstract	Infection control entails preventing or minimizing exposure to infectious agents or optimizing resistance to infection at the individual and population levels should exposure occur. The degree to which each of these strategies is applied varies according to the attributes of the disease agent and the population at risk. In developing an infection control, biosecurity, or biocontainment plan, it is important to decide which agent or agents are to be controlled, the method by which they might be introduced to the individual or population, and methods by which they might spread once at a farm or veterinary clinic.
MeSH term(s)	Animal Husbandry/methods ; Animal Husbandry/standards ; Animals ; Horse Diseases/prevention & control ; Horses ; Hospitals, Animal/standards ; Hygiene ; Infection Control/methods
Language	English
Publishing date	2004-12
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article ; Review
ZDB-ID	286049-1
ISSN	1558-4224 ; 0749-0739
ISSN (online)	1558-4224
ISSN	0749-0739
DOI	10.1016/j.cveq.2004.07.004
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Article: Detection and management of an outbreak of equine herpesvirus type 1 infection and associated neurological disease in a veterinary teaching hospital

Goehring, L.S / Landolt, G.A / Morley, P.S

Journal of veterinary internal medicine. 2010 , v. 24, no. 5

2010

Abstract: ... EHV-1) infections, awareness and control measures used to control outbreaks are important issues ... strict infection control procedures. We describe the occurrence and management of a nosocomial outbreak ... from other horses by strictly enforced biosecurity and isolation procedures. Serial testing with PCR may be a useful ...

Abstract	Background: Because of the serious disease sequelae associated with equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1) infections, awareness and control measures used to control outbreaks are important issues for all horse populations. Objectives: Describe the occurrence and management of an outbreak of EHV-1 infection at a veterinary hospital. Animals: Horses hospitalized at a referral veterinary hospital. Methods: A horse with myeloencephalopathy associated with EHV-1 infection (EHM) was admitted for diagnostic evaluation and treatment under strict infection control procedures. We describe the occurrence and management of a nosocomial outbreak of EHV-1 infections associated with admission of this patient. Results: Despite institution of rigorous biosecurity precautions at the time of admission of the index case, EHV-1 infections spread to 6 other horses that were hospitalized at the James L. Voss Veterinary Teaching Hopsital, including 2 that served as sources of infection for horses on their home premises after discharge. Infection with EHV-1 was confirmed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and by seroconversion documented by glycoprotein G ELISA. A voluntary quarantine was imposed and admissions were restricted to prevent additional horses from being exposed. Quarantine duration was abbreviated by serial testing of all horses with PCR. Conclusions and Clinical Importance: These findings illustrate the contagious disease risk that can accompany management of horses with EHM. Horses with active nasal EHV-1 shedding should be isolated in an airspace that is separate from other horses by strictly enforced biosecurity and isolation procedures. Serial testing with PCR may be a useful adjunct to determine when the risk of transmission has been minimized.
Keywords	Equid herpesvirus 1 ; biosecurity ; complications (disease) ; disease control ; enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay ; glycoproteins ; horses ; medicine ; myeloencephalopathy ; nose ; patients ; polymerase chain reaction ; quarantine ; risk ; seroconversion
Language	English
Size	p. 1176-1183.
Publishing place	J.B. Lippincott
Document type	Article
ZDB-ID	92798-3
ISSN	1939-1676 ; 0891-6640
ISSN (online)	1939-1676
ISSN	0891-6640
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Article ; Online: Die Equine Infektiöse Anämie – eine Besprechung aus amtstierärztlicher Sicht.

Zimmerli, U / Thür, B

Schweizer Archiv fur Tierheilkunde

2019 Volume 161, Issue 11, Page(s) 725–738

Abstract: ... animal health do not prescribe national monitoring and control plans, allowing member states to shape ... Introduction: Equine infectious anaemia (EIA) is a sporadic viral disease in many countries ... transmitted by virus-containing blood and blood products. Introductions in previously disease-free regions are ...

Title translation	Equine Infectious Anaemia - a review from an official veterinary perspective.
Abstract	Introduction: Equine infectious anaemia (EIA) is a sporadic viral disease in many countries. Every single case has, however, a dramatic impact: infected animals have to be put down, and quarantine restrictions on horse movements lasting three months lead to substantial economic losses. In Switzerland, the mandatory notification was introduced in 1994 in order to facilitate international traffic. A year later, the "new" Ordinance on epizootics of 1995 classified EIA as a "disease to be eradicated". An infected polo horse in the canton of Argovia in summer 2017 thus represented Switzerland's first official case. It served as a starting point to review the legal frameworks of the EU and Switzerland. Recent publications suggest that there might be some potential to optimize the current diagnostic protocols. EIA is transmitted by virus-containing blood and blood products. Introductions in previously disease-free regions are mostly due to human activities, while blood feeding insects as horse flies or other biting flies act as mechanical vectors only locally within some 100 meters. As before, the new EU Regulations governing animal health do not prescribe national monitoring and control plans, allowing member states to shape them according to their particular situation. However, they have to ensure that equids intended for intracommunity movements comply with specific guarantees. In this context, a fine-tuning of current international standards seems conceivable. Mandatory testing preceding each movement would not be a proportionate option even for the future. Regardless their final wording, it would be a great step for all the actors involved in animal traffic if it were possible to adopt rules that are accepted and uniformly implemented by all competent authorities at national, regional and local level. However, the official system will never be able to guarantee absolute safety. Since there are neither effective vaccines nor treatment protocols, it is crucial that all owners, stablehands, veterinarians, associations, and organizers of horse contests are aware of the disease risks, minimizing them as far as possible by adequate biosecurity measures.
MeSH term(s)	Animals ; Equine Infectious Anemia/pathology ; Equine Infectious Anemia/prevention & control ; Equine Infectious Anemia/transmission ; Horses ; Switzerland ; Transportation
Language	German
Publishing date	2019-11-04
Publishing country	Switzerland
Document type	Journal Article ; Review
ZDB-ID	391726-5
ISSN	1664-2848 ; 0036-7281
ISSN (online)	1664-2848
ISSN	0036-7281
DOI	10.17236/sat00232
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Article ; Online: Vorgehensweise und Hygienemaßnahmen beim Ausbruch von Herpes, Influenza, Druse oder Infektionen mit multiresistenten Keimen.

Gehlen, Heidrun / Rutenberg, Dusty / Simon, Claudia / Reinhold-Fritzen, Birgitta / Drozdzewska, Karolina

Tierarztliche Praxis. Ausgabe G, Grosstiere/Nutztiere

2022 Volume 50, Issue 2, Page(s) 115–125

Abstract: ... to a yellow group ("suspected") and regularly controlled for the signs of infection and fever. Clinically ... of infectious agents to people and horses.The conception of a hygiene plan, including general biosecurity procedures ... and standard operating procedures in a case of an outbreak of an infectious disease, zoonosis, or ...

Title translation	Management and hygiene measures during an outbreak of herpes, influenza, strangles or infections with multidrug resistant bacteria.
Abstract	The aim of this review is to describe general guidelines of hygiene measures in the horse stable as well as to provide current recommendations for an outbreak of a common infectious disease. General cleanliness, hand hygiene, avoidance of stress, regular deworming, and vaccinations belong to the basic hygiene measures in a horse herd. All new or returning equids should be submitted to a quarantine period as an important prevention measure. Repeated washing and disinfection of hands may prevent spreading of infectious agents to people and horses.The conception of a hygiene plan, including general biosecurity procedures and standard operating procedures in a case of an outbreak of an infectious disease, zoonosis, or colonization with multi-resistant bacteria is strongly recommended. As soon as the disease is suspected, extended hygiene measures including protective clothing, cleaning, disinfection, and isolation of potentially infected animals should be implemented. Prompt confirmation of the causative agent by examination of appropriate samples is crucial. It is important to adjust all safety measures based on the contagious nature of the respective pathogen and its major transmission routes. Apart from a lock-down of the stable, clinic or show grounds, the segregation of horses plays an important role. Implementation of the "traffic light system" is recommended. In this, the red group ("infected") include animals with clinical signs of the disease or that have been tested positive. All horses with possible pathogen contact should be allocated to a yellow group ("suspected") and regularly controlled for the signs of infection and fever. Clinically normal horses without contact to the infected animals belong to the green group ("healthy"). A change of protective clothing and an extensive disinfection should be performed when moving between the groups.The extended hygiene measures are to be maintained until all animals have been tested negative or fail to exhibit clinical signs of the disease for a certain time period.
MeSH term(s)	Animals ; Communicable Diseases/veterinary ; Disease Outbreaks/prevention & control ; Disease Outbreaks/veterinary ; Disinfection ; Horse Diseases/prevention & control ; Horses ; Humans ; Hygiene ; Influenza, Human
Language	German
Publishing date	2022-05-06
Publishing country	Germany
Document type	Journal Article ; Review
ZDB-ID	2178387-1
ISSN	2567-5834 ; 1434-1220
ISSN (online)	2567-5834
ISSN	1434-1220
DOI	10.1055/a-1809-2163
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