| Abstract |
ConspectusElectrical doping using redox-active molecules can increase the conductivity of organic semiconductors and lower charge-carrier injection and extraction barriers; it has application in devices such as organic and perovskite light-emitting diodes, organic and perovskite photovoltaic cells, field-effect transistors, and thermoelectric devices. Simple one-electron reductants that can act as n-dopants for a wide range of useful semiconductors must necessarily have low ionization energies and are, thus, highly sensitive toward ambient conditions, leading to challenges in their storage and handling. A number of approaches to this challenge have been developed, in which the highly reducing species is generated from a precursor or in which electron transfer is coupled in some way to a chemical reaction. Many of these approaches are relatively limited in applicability because of processing constraints, limited dopant strength, or the formation of side products.This Account discusses our work to develop relatively stable, yet highly reducing, n-dopants based on the dimers formed by some 19-electron organometallic complexes and by some organic radicals. These dimers are sufficiently inert that they can be briefly handled as solids in air but react with acceptors to release two electrons and to form two equivalents of stable monomeric cations, without formation of unwanted side products. We first discuss syntheses of such dimers, both previously reported and our own. We next turn to discuss their thermodynamic redox potentials, which depend on both the oxidation potential of the highly reducing odd-electron monomers and on the free energies of dissociation of the dimers; because trends in both these quantities depend on the monomer stability, they often more-or-less cancel, resulting in effective redox potentials for a number of the organometallic dimers that are approximately -2.0 V vs ferrocenium/ferrocene. However, variations in the dimer oxidation potential and the dissociation energies determine the mechanism through which a dimer reacts with a given acceptor in solution: in all cases dimer-to-acceptor electron transfer is followed by dimer cation cleavage and a subsequent second electron transfer from the neutral monomer to the acceptor, but examples with weak central bonds can also react through endergonic cleavage of the neutral dimer, followed by electron-transfer reactions between the resulting monomers and the acceptor. We, then, discuss the use of these dimers to dope a wide range of semiconductors through both vacuum and solution processing. In particular, we highlight the role of photoactivation in extending the reach of one of these dopants, enabling successful doping of a low-electron-affinity electron-transport material in an organic light-emitting diode. Finally, we suggest future directions for research using dimeric dopants.
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