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  1. Article ; Online: The influence of stress on the transition from drug use to addiction.

    Wand, Gary

    Alcohol research & health : the journal of the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism

    2013  Volume 31, Issue 2, Page(s) 119–136

    Abstract: Stress--that is, any type of stimulus that challenges the organism's normal internal balance--induces a physiologic response involving a variety of hormones and other signaling molecules that act on, among other organs, the brain. This stress response ... ...

    Abstract Stress--that is, any type of stimulus that challenges the organism's normal internal balance--induces a physiologic response involving a variety of hormones and other signaling molecules that act on, among other organs, the brain. This stress response also can influence the progression of alcohol and other drug (AOD) addiction through various stages. For example, AODs can directly activate the stress response. In turn, certain stress hormones (i.e., glucocorticoids and corticotrophin-releasing factor) also act on the brain system that mediates the rewarding experiences associated with AOD use (i.e., the mesocorticolimbic dopamine system). Moreover, elevated glucocorticoid levels and stress increase AOD self-administration in certain animal models. During a later stage of the addiction process, in contrast, excessive and/or prolonged stress may impair the reward system, inducing heavier AOD use to maintain the rewarding experience. During the final stage of addiction, when the addicted person experiences withdrawal symptoms if no drug is consumed, chronic AOD use results in gross impairment of the normal stress response and other signaling mechanisms in the brain, resulting in a state of anxiety and internal stress. At this stage, people continue to use AODs mainly to relieve this negative-affect state.
    MeSH term(s) Animals ; Behavior, Addictive/etiology ; Behavior, Addictive/physiopathology ; Behavior, Addictive/psychology ; Drug Users/psychology ; Humans ; Signal Transduction/physiology ; Stress, Psychological/complications ; Stress, Psychological/physiopathology ; Stress, Psychological/psychology ; Substance-Related Disorders/etiology ; Substance-Related Disorders/physiopathology ; Substance-Related Disorders/psychology
    Language English
    Publishing date 2013-04-12
    Publishing country United States
    Document type Journal Article ; Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural ; Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't ; Review
    ZDB-ID 1498691-7
    ISSN 1930-0573 ; 1535-7414 ; 0090-838X
    ISSN (online) 1930-0573
    ISSN 1535-7414 ; 0090-838X
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  2. Article ; Online: Early Life Stress as a Predictor of Co-Occurring Alcohol Use Disorder and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder.

    Lee, Richard S / Oswald, Lynn M / Wand, Gary S

    Alcohol research : current reviews

    2019  Volume 39, Issue 2, Page(s) 147–159

    Abstract: During the critical developmental periods of childhood when neural plasticity is high, exposure to early life stress (ELS) or trauma may lead to enduring changes in physiological stress systems and enhanced vulnerability for psychopathological conditions ...

    Abstract During the critical developmental periods of childhood when neural plasticity is high, exposure to early life stress (ELS) or trauma may lead to enduring changes in physiological stress systems and enhanced vulnerability for psychopathological conditions such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and alcohol use disorder (AUD) in adulthood. Clinical and preclinical studies have sought to understand the possible mechanisms linking ELS, PTSD, and AUD. Preclinical studies have employed animal models of stress to recapitulate PTSD-like behavioral deficits and alcohol dependence, providing a basic framework for identifying common physiological mechanisms that may underlie these disorders. Clinical studies have documented ELS-related endocrine dysregulation and genetic variations associated with PTSD and AUD, as well as disruption in crucial neural circuitry throughout the corticomesolimbic region. Despite limitations and challenges, both types of studies have implicated three interrelated mechanisms: hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis and glucocorticoid signaling dysregulation, genetics, and epigenetics. ELS exposure leads to disruption of HPA axis function and glucocorticoid signaling, both of which affect homeostatic cortisol levels. However, individual response to ELS depends on genetic variations at specific genes that moderate HPA axis and brain function, thus influencing susceptibility or resilience to psychopathologies. Epigenetic-influenced pathways also are emerging as a powerful force in helping to create the PTSD and AUD phenotypes. Dysregulation of the HPA axis has an epigenetic effect on genes that regulate the HPA axis itself, as well as on brain-specific processes such as neurodevelopment and neurotransmitter regulation. These studies are only beginning to elucidate the underpinnings of ELS, PTSD, and AUD. Larger human cohorts, identification of additional genetic determinants, and better animal models capable of recapitulating the symptoms of PTSD and AUD are needed.
    MeSH term(s) Adverse Childhood Experiences/statistics & numerical data ; Alcoholism/epidemiology ; Alcoholism/etiology ; Alcoholism/metabolism ; Alcoholism/physiopathology ; Animals ; Child ; Comorbidity ; Humans ; Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System/metabolism ; Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System/physiopathology ; Pituitary-Adrenal System/metabolism ; Pituitary-Adrenal System/physiopathology ; Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic/epidemiology ; Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic/etiology ; Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic/metabolism ; Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic/physiopathology ; Stress, Psychological/complications ; Stress, Psychological/epidemiology ; Stress, Psychological/metabolism ; Stress, Psychological/physiopathology
    Language English
    Publishing date 2019-05-23
    Publishing country United States
    Document type Journal Article ; Review
    ZDB-ID 2677485-9
    ISSN 2169-4796 ; 1930-0573 ; 2168-3492 ; 0090-838X
    ISSN (online) 2169-4796 ; 1930-0573
    ISSN 2168-3492 ; 0090-838X
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  3. Book: Cortisol dysregulation and alcoholism

    Wand, Gary S

    consequence, correlation, or causality

    2015  

    Abstract: ... neurochemical changes using imaging in subjects with substance use disorders. Dr. Wand is studying ... dopamine transmission. Dr. Wand received his medical degree and subsequent training in internal medicine ... Mains, Ph.D. and Betty Eipper, Ph.D. in JHU"s Department of Neuroscience. Dr. Wand then joined ...

    Institution National Institutes of Health (U.S.),
    Author's details Gary S. Wand
    Abstract (CIT): 7th Annual Jack Mendelson Honorary Lecture NIAAA established the Jack Mendelson Honorary Lecture Series as a tribute to Dr. Jack Mendelson, who made remarkable scientific contributions to the field of clinical alcohol research. The purpose of this honorary lecture series is to highlight clinical/human research in the alcohol field by an outstanding investigator who has made significant and long-term contributions to our understanding of alcoholism susceptibility, alcohol's effects on the brain and other organs, and the prevention and treatment of alcohol use disorders. NIAAA is pleased to present this series of scientific lectures to acknowledge the advances researchers are making in a wide range of alcohol-related areas of clinical research, and to honor the memory of an individual whose exciting and pioneering research with human alcoholics remains relevant today. Dr. Wand's research has advanced our understanding of the genetic and environmental determinants of the stress response and has elucidated how excessive stress hormone production may contribute to neurobiological conditions such as alcohol or drug disorders. Some of Dr. Wand's seminal discoveries include identifying unique pharmacological responses to naloxone in individuals at increased risk for alcohol use disorders, identifying specific hormonal responses in subjects with alcohol use disorders, and characterizing human brain neurochemical changes using imaging in subjects with substance use disorders. Dr. Wand is studying the epigenetic modulation of stress and cortisol exposure in rodent and human models, based on the hypothesis that specific epigenetic events affect how much cortisol an individual produces, which in turn influences dopamine transmission. Dr. Wand received his medical degree and subsequent training in internal medicine from the George Washington University. Following post-doctoral training in Endocrinology and Metabolism at The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, he was a fellow in the peptide laboratories of Richard Mains, Ph.D. and Betty Eipper, Ph.D. in JHU"s Department of Neuroscience. Dr. Wand then joined the faculty of the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine. In 2000, NIAAA and the NIH honored Dr. Wand with a 10-year Merit Award to continue his research on the role of the HPA axis in alcoholism. He has also received numerous local and national "Best Doctor" awards. Dr. Wand is the author of more than 175 articles and chapters and is on the editorial board of several journals.
    MeSH term(s) Alcoholism/etiology ; Hydrocortisone
    Language English
    Size 1 online resource (1 streaming video file (1 hr., 19 min.)) :, color, sound
    Document type Book
    Note Closed-captioned.
    Database Catalogue of the US National Library of Medicine (NLM)

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  4. Article ; Online: Comments and controversies: Piecing together the neurobiology of decision-making.

    Oswald, Lynn M / Wand, Gary S

    NeuroImage

    2016  Volume 125, Page(s) 1096–1098

    Abstract: In this paper, we address issues raised by Tierney and Hart (Assessing Complex Cognitive Functioning Requires Multiple Tasks) in response to our recently published findings showing that less advantageous decision-making on the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) ... ...

    Abstract In this paper, we address issues raised by Tierney and Hart (Assessing Complex Cognitive Functioning Requires Multiple Tasks) in response to our recently published findings showing that less advantageous decision-making on the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) was associated with enhanced right ventral striatal dopamine response to intravenous amphetamine (Oswald et al., 2015). We agree with the overall premise of the paper, which was that decision-making involves multiple components, which may not be tapped by a single measure. While Tierney and Hart also bring up some important issues related to the construct validity of the IGT, we suggest that they are failing to put the findings within the context of the growing body of research that has highlighted the role of DA function in risk-taking behavior across species using a variety of tasks. It should also be noted that it was not our goal to "cover all bases" within the context of a single study. Nevertheless, we appreciate the discussion, which we believe highlights the need for further empirical refinement of the construct to facilitate detection and understanding of the differential role that specific molecular mechanisms may play in the component processes.
    MeSH term(s) Amphetamine/pharmacology ; Central Nervous System Stimulants/pharmacology ; Decision Making/drug effects ; Dopamine Uptake Inhibitors/pharmacology ; Female ; Humans ; Male ; Radionuclide Imaging ; Risk-Taking ; Ventral Striatum/diagnostic imaging ; Ventral Striatum/drug effects
    Chemical Substances Central Nervous System Stimulants ; Dopamine Uptake Inhibitors ; Amphetamine (CK833KGX7E)
    Language English
    Publishing date 2016-01-15
    Publishing country United States
    Document type Journal Article ; Comment
    ZDB-ID 1147767-2
    ISSN 1095-9572 ; 1053-8119
    ISSN (online) 1095-9572
    ISSN 1053-8119
    DOI 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.07.089
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  5. Article ; Online: Detecting Deception in Our Research Participants: Are Your Participants Who You Think They Are?

    McCaul, Mary E / Wand, Gary S

    Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research

    2017  Volume 42, Issue 2, Page(s) 230–237

    Abstract: There is increasing awareness of the potential negative impacts of participant deception on research, including possibly undermining reliability and reproducibility of study findings. These deceptive individuals set their personal interests above the ... ...

    Abstract There is increasing awareness of the potential negative impacts of participant deception on research, including possibly undermining reliability and reproducibility of study findings. These deceptive individuals set their personal interests above the rules of study participation, thereby jeopardizing data quality as well as placing themselves and others at risk. The costs of participant deception are numerous. Overall, it reduces statistical power and may even result in false conclusions about efficacy and safety. To date, most studies have not utilized sufficient methods to detect rule-breaking subjects. The purpose of this article is to bring to the attention of alcohol and other drug researchers issues involving deceptive participants. The review will suggest alcohol-specific as well as more general strategies to identify and thereby minimize enrollment of these deceptive participants. Specifically, we will identify strategies that are employed in different phases of human alcohol research and advance approaches that may be helpful to the field in reducing these contaminants. As a field, we need to be more proactive in identifying the deceptive participant even at the cost of more burdensome study enrollment. In light of the systemic nature and multipronged damage that this emerging pattern of deception inflicts on clinical research, it is imperative that we each assume greater responsibility for our role in mitigating this source of research contamination.
    MeSH term(s) Alcoholism ; Biomedical Research ; Deception ; Humans ; Research Subjects ; Substance-Related Disorders
    Language English
    Publishing date 2017-12-29
    Publishing country England
    Document type Journal Article ; Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural ; Review
    ZDB-ID 428999-7
    ISSN 1530-0277 ; 0145-6008
    ISSN (online) 1530-0277
    ISSN 0145-6008
    DOI 10.1111/acer.13556
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  6. Article ; Online: Methylomic and transcriptomic predictors of one-month exposure to cortisol in healthy individuals.

    Lee, Richard S / Zandi, Peter P / Lin, Yian / Seifuddin, Fayaz / Benke, Kelly S / McCaul, Mary E / Reitz, Kendall / Wand, Gary S

    Stress (Amsterdam, Netherlands)

    2021  Volume 24, Issue 6, Page(s) 840–848

    Abstract: Allostatic load (AL) refers to the cumulative "wear and tear" on an organism throughout its lifetime. One of the primary contributing factors to AL is prolonged exposure to stress or its primary catabolic agent cortisol. Chronic exposure to stress or ... ...

    Abstract Allostatic load (AL) refers to the cumulative "wear and tear" on an organism throughout its lifetime. One of the primary contributing factors to AL is prolonged exposure to stress or its primary catabolic agent cortisol. Chronic exposure to stress or cortisol is associated with numerous diseases, including cardiovascular disease, metabolic disorders, and psychiatric disorders. Therefore, a molecular marker capable of integrating a past history of cortisol exposure would be of great utility for assessing disease risk. To this end, we recruited 87 healthy males and females of European ancestry between 18 and 60 years old, extracted genomic DNA and RNA from leukocytes, and implemented a gene-centric DNA enrichment method coupled with bisulfite sequencing and RNA-Seq of total RNA for the determination of genome-wide methylation and gene transcription, respectively. Sequencing data were analyzed against awakening and bedtime cortisol data to identify differentially methylated regions (DMRs) and CpGs (DMCs) and differentially expressed genes (DEGs). Six candidate DMCs (
    MeSH term(s) Adolescent ; Adult ; Allostasis ; DNA Methylation ; Female ; Humans ; Hydrocortisone/metabolism ; Male ; Middle Aged ; Saliva/metabolism ; Stress, Psychological/metabolism ; Transcriptome ; Young Adult
    Chemical Substances Hydrocortisone (WI4X0X7BPJ)
    Language English
    Publishing date 2021-07-19
    Publishing country England
    Document type Journal Article ; Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural ; Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
    ZDB-ID 1387706-9
    ISSN 1607-8888 ; 1025-3890
    ISSN (online) 1607-8888
    ISSN 1025-3890
    DOI 10.1080/10253890.2021.1946509
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  7. Article: The anxious amygdala: CREB signaling and predisposition to anxiety and alcoholism.

    Wand, Gary

    The Journal of clinical investigation

    2005  Volume 115, Issue 10, Page(s) 2697–2699

    Abstract: The amygdala is believed to play a key role in assigning emotional significance to specific sensory input, and conditions such as anxiety, autism, stress, and phobias are thought to be linked to its abnormal function. Growing evidence has also implicated ...

    Abstract The amygdala is believed to play a key role in assigning emotional significance to specific sensory input, and conditions such as anxiety, autism, stress, and phobias are thought to be linked to its abnormal function. Growing evidence has also implicated the amygdala in mediation of the stress-dampening properties of alcohol. In this issue of the JCI, Pandey and colleagues identify a central amygdaloid signaling pathway involved in anxiety-like and alcohol-drinking behaviors in rats. They report that decreased phosphorylation of cAMP responsive element-binding protein (CREB) resulted in decreased neuropeptide Y (NPY) expression in the central amygdala of alcohol-preferring rats, causing high anxiety-like behavior. Alcohol intake by these animals was shown to increase PKA-dependent CREB phosphorylation and thereby NPY expression, subsequently ameliorating anxiety-like behavior. These provocative data suggest that a CREB-dependent neuromechanism underlies high anxiety-like and excessive alcohol-drinking behavior.
    MeSH term(s) Alcohol-Induced Disorders, Nervous System/genetics ; Alcohol-Induced Disorders, Nervous System/metabolism ; Alcohol-Induced Disorders, Nervous System/pathology ; Alcoholism/genetics ; Alcoholism/metabolism ; Alcoholism/pathology ; Amygdala/metabolism ; Amygdala/pathology ; Animals ; Anxiety/genetics ; Anxiety/metabolism ; Anxiety/pathology ; Cyclic AMP Response Element-Binding Protein/genetics ; Cyclic AMP Response Element-Binding Protein/metabolism ; Genetic Predisposition to Disease ; Humans ; Neuropeptide Y/biosynthesis ; Neuropeptide Y/genetics ; Rats ; Signal Transduction
    Chemical Substances Cyclic AMP Response Element-Binding Protein ; Neuropeptide Y
    Language English
    Publishing date 2005-10
    Publishing country United States
    Document type Comment ; Journal Article ; Review
    ZDB-ID 3067-3
    ISSN 1558-8238 ; 0021-9738
    ISSN (online) 1558-8238
    ISSN 0021-9738
    DOI 10.1172/JCI26436
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  8. Article ; Online: Adiposity, aldosterone and plasma renin activity among African Americans: The Jackson Heart Study.

    Lee, Grace / Kluwe, Bjorn / Zhao, Songzhu / Kline, David / Nedungadi, Divya / Brock, Guy N / Odei, James B / Kesireddy, Veena / Pohlman, Neal / Sims, Mario / Effoe, Valery S / Wu, Wen-Chih / Kalyani, Rita R / Wand, Gary S / Echouffo-Tcheugui, Justin / Golden, Sherita H / Joseph, Joshua J

    Endocrine and metabolic science

    2023  Volume 11

    Abstract: Objective: To analyze associations between adiposity and the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) in a large African American (AA) cohort.: Methods: Cross-sectional associations of adiposity (body mass index [BMI], waist circumference [WC], ... ...

    Abstract Objective: To analyze associations between adiposity and the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) in a large African American (AA) cohort.
    Methods: Cross-sectional associations of adiposity (body mass index [BMI], waist circumference [WC], waist:height ratio, waist:hip ratio, leptin, adiponectin, leptin:adiponectin ratio [LAR], subcutaneous [SAT] and visceral adipose tissue [VAT], and liver attenuation [LA]) with aldosterone, plasma renin activity (renin), and aldosterone:renin ratio (ARR) were assessed in the Jackson Heart Study using adjusted linear regression models.
    Results: A 1-SD higher BMI was associated with a 4.8 % higher aldosterone, 9.4 % higher renin, and 5.0 % lower ARR (all p < 0.05). Log-leptin had the largest magnitude of association with renin (30.2 % higher) and ARR (9.6 % lower), while the strongest association of aldosterone existed for log-LAR (15.3 % higher) (all 1-SD, p < 0.05). SAT was only associated with renin. VAT was associated with higher aldosterone, renin, and ARR. Liver fat was associated with aldosterone and renin, but not ARR. Associations of WC, BMI, and SAT with aldosterone were greater in men while the association with VAT was greater in women (p-interactions < 0.05).
    Conclusion: Multiple measures of adiposity are associated with the RAAS in AAs. Further studies should examine the role of RAAS in obesity-driven cardiometabolic diseases.
    Language English
    Publishing date 2023-04-17
    Publishing country England
    Document type Journal Article
    ISSN 2666-3961
    ISSN (online) 2666-3961
    DOI 10.1016/j.endmts.2023.100126
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  9. Article ; Online: Disrupted executive cerebro-cerebellar functional connectivity in alcohol use disorder.

    Rice, Laura C / Langan, Mackenzie T / Cheng, Dominic T / Sheu, Yi-Shin / Peterburs, Jutta / Hua, Jun / Qin, Qin / Rilee, Jessica J / Faulkner, Monica L / Mathena, Joanna R / Munro, Cynthia A / Wand, Gary S / McCaul, Mary E / Desmond, John E

    Alcohol, clinical & experimental research

    2023  Volume 48, Issue 1, Page(s) 33–47

    Abstract: Background: Alcohol use disorder (AUD) affects 283 million people worldwide and its prevalence is increasing. Despite the role of the cerebellum in executive control and its sensitivity to alcohol, few studies have assessed its involvement in AUD- ... ...

    Abstract Background: Alcohol use disorder (AUD) affects 283 million people worldwide and its prevalence is increasing. Despite the role of the cerebellum in executive control and its sensitivity to alcohol, few studies have assessed its involvement in AUD-relevant functional networks. The goal of this study is to compare resting-state functional connectivity (FC) patterns in abstinent adults with a history of AUD and controls (CTL). We hypothesized that group differences in cerebro-cerebellar FC would be present, particularly within the frontoparietal/executive control network (FPN).
    Methods: Twenty-eight participants completed a resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rsfMRI) study. CTL participants had no history of AUD, comorbid psychological conditions, or recent heavy drinking and/or drug use. AUD participants had a history of AUD, with sobriety for at least 30 days prior to data collection. Multivariate pattern analysis, an agnostic, whole-brain approach, was used to identify regions with significant differences in FC between groups. Seed-based analyses were then conducted to determine the directionality and extent of these FC differences. Associations between FC strength and executive function were assessed using correlations with Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) performance.
    Results: There were significant group differences in FC in nodes of the FPN, ventral attention network, and default mode network. Post hoc analyses predominantly identified FC differences within the cerebro-cerebellar FPN, with AUD showing significantly less FC within the FPN. In AUD, FC strength between FPN clusters identified in the multivariate pattern analysis (MVPA) analysis (Left Crus II, Right Frontal Cortex) was positively associated with performance on the WCST.
    Conclusions: Our results show less engagement of the FPN in individuals with AUD than in CTL. FC strength within this network was positively associated with performance on the WCST. These findings suggest that long-term heavy drinking alters cerebro-cerebellar FC, particularly within networks that are involved in executive function.
    Language English
    Publishing date 2023-11-14
    Publishing country United States
    Document type Journal Article
    ISSN 2993-7175
    ISSN (online) 2993-7175
    DOI 10.1111/acer.15219
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  10. Article: Stress and the HPA axis: role of glucocorticoids in alcohol dependence.

    Stephens, Mary Ann C / Wand, Gary

    Alcohol research : current reviews

    2013  Volume 34, Issue 4, Page(s) 468–483

    Abstract: Stress has long been suggested to be an important correlate of uncontrolled drinking and relapse. An important hormonal response system to stress-the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis-may be involved in this process, particularly stress hormones ... ...

    Abstract Stress has long been suggested to be an important correlate of uncontrolled drinking and relapse. An important hormonal response system to stress-the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis-may be involved in this process, particularly stress hormones known as glucocorticoids and primarily cortisol. The actions of this hormone system normally are tightly regulated to ensure that the body can respond quickly to stressful events and return to a normal state just as rapidly. The main determinants of HPA axis activity are genetic background, early-life environment, and current life stress. Alterations in HPA axis regulation are associated with problematic alcohol use and dependence; however, the nature of this dysregulation appears to vary with respect to stage of alcohol dependence. Much of this research has focused specifically on the role of cortisol in the risk for, development of, and relapse to chronic alcohol use. These studies found that cortisol can interact with the brain's reward system, which may contribute to alcohol's reinforcing effects. Cortisol also can influence a person's cognitive processes, promoting habit-based learning, which may contribute to habit formation and risk of relapse. Finally, cortisol levels during abstinence may be useful clinical indicators of relapse vulnerability in alcohol-dependent people.
    MeSH term(s) Alcoholic Intoxication/metabolism ; Alcoholic Intoxication/physiopathology ; Alcoholism/genetics ; Alcoholism/metabolism ; Alcoholism/physiopathology ; Central Nervous System Depressants/adverse effects ; Epigenesis, Genetic ; Ethanol/adverse effects ; Glucocorticoids/genetics ; Glucocorticoids/metabolism ; Glucocorticoids/physiology ; Humans ; Hydrocortisone/genetics ; Hydrocortisone/metabolism ; Hydrocortisone/physiology ; Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System/physiopathology ; Pituitary-Adrenal System/physiopathology ; Stress, Psychological/genetics ; Stress, Psychological/metabolism ; Stress, Psychological/physiopathology ; Substance Withdrawal Syndrome/etiology ; Substance Withdrawal Syndrome/metabolism ; Substance Withdrawal Syndrome/physiopathology
    Chemical Substances Central Nervous System Depressants ; Glucocorticoids ; Ethanol (3K9958V90M) ; Hydrocortisone (WI4X0X7BPJ)
    Language English
    Publishing date 2013-04-12
    Publishing country United States
    Document type Journal Article ; Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural ; Review
    ISSN 2168-3492
    ISSN 2168-3492
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