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Article ; Online: Robot swarms neutralize harmful Byzantine robots using a blockchain-based token economy.

Strobel, Volker / Pacheco, Alexandre / Dorigo, Marco

Science robotics

2023 Volume 8, Issue 79, Page(s) eabm4636

Abstract: Through cooperation, robot swarms can perform tasks or solve problems that a single robot from the swarm could not perform/solve by itself. However, it has been shown that a single Byzantine robot (such as a malfunctioning or malicious robot) can disrupt ...

Abstract	Through cooperation, robot swarms can perform tasks or solve problems that a single robot from the swarm could not perform/solve by itself. However, it has been shown that a single Byzantine robot (such as a malfunctioning or malicious robot) can disrupt the coordination strategy of the entire swarm. Therefore, a versatile swarm robotics framework that addresses security issues in inter-robot communication and coordination is urgently needed. Here, we show that security issues can be addressed by setting up a token economy between the robots. To create and maintain the token economy, we used blockchain technology, originally developed for the digital currency Bitcoin. The robots were given crypto tokens that allowed them to participate in the swarm's security-critical activities. The token economy was regulated via a smart contract that decided how to distribute crypto tokens among the robots depending on their contributions. We designed the smart contract so that Byzantine robots soon ran out of crypto tokens and could therefore no longer influence the rest of the swarm. In experiments with up to 24 physical robots, we demonstrated that our smart contract approach worked: The robots could maintain blockchain networks, and a blockchain-based token economy could be used to neutralize the destructive actions of Byzantine robots in a collective-sensing scenario. In experiments with more than 100 simulated robots, we studied the scalability and long-term behavior of our approach. The obtained results demonstrate the feasibility and viability of blockchain-based swarm robotics.
Language	English
Publishing date	2023-06-28
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article
ISSN	2470-9476
ISSN (online)	2470-9476
DOI	10.1126/scirobotics.abm4636
Database	MEDical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System OnLINE

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Article ; Online: Learning from humans to build social cognition among robots.

Coucke, Nicolas / Heinrich, Mary Katherine / Cleeremans, Axel / Dorigo, Marco

Frontiers in robotics and AI

2023 Volume 10, Page(s) 1030416

Abstract: Self-organized groups of robots have generally coordinated their behaviors using quite simple social interactions. Although simple interactions are sufficient for some group behaviors, future research needs to investigate more elaborate forms of ... ...

Abstract	Self-organized groups of robots have generally coordinated their behaviors using quite simple social interactions. Although simple interactions are sufficient for some group behaviors, future research needs to investigate more elaborate forms of coordination, such as social cognition, to progress towards real deployments. In this perspective, we define social cognition among robots as the combination of social inference, social learning, social influence, and knowledge transfer, and propose that these abilities can be established in robots by building underlying mechanisms based on behaviors observed in humans. We review key social processes observed in humans that could inspire valuable capabilities in robots and propose that relevant insights from human social cognition can be obtained by studying human-controlled avatars in virtual environments that have the correct balance of embodiment and constraints. Such environments need to allow participants to engage in embodied social behaviors, for instance through situatedness and bodily involvement, but, at the same time, need to artificially constrain humans to the operational conditions of robots, for instance in terms of perception and communication. We illustrate our proposed experimental method with example setups in a multi-user virtual environment.
Language	English
Publishing date	2023-02-06
Publishing country	Switzerland
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	2781824-X
ISSN	2296-9144 ; 2296-9144
ISSN (online)	2296-9144
ISSN	2296-9144
DOI	10.3389/frobt.2023.1030416
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Article ; Online: Phosphorus feeding practices, barriers to and motivators for minimising phosphorus feeding to dairy cows in diverse dairy farming systems.

Harrison, B P / Dorigo, M / Reynolds, C K / Sinclair, L A / Ray, P P

Animal : an international journal of animal bioscience

2021 Volume 15, Issue 7, Page(s) 100248

Abstract: Minimising phosphorus (P) feeding to dairy cows can reduce feed costs and minimise water pollution without impairing animal performance. This study aimed to determine current P feeding practices and identify the barriers to and motivators for minimising ... ...

Abstract	Minimising phosphorus (P) feeding to dairy cows can reduce feed costs and minimise water pollution without impairing animal performance. This study aimed to determine current P feeding practices and identify the barriers to and motivators for minimising P feeding on dairy farms, using Great Britain (GB) dairy farming as an example of diverse systems. Farmers (n = 139) and feed advisers (n = 31) were involved simultaneously in independent questionnaire surveys on P feeding in dairy farms. Data on the herd size, milk yield and concentrate fed were analysed using ANOVA to investigate the effect of farm classification, region, and feed professional advice. Chi-square tests were used to investigate associations between farm characteristics and implemented P feeding and management practices. Most farmers (72%) did not know the P concentration in their lactating cow's diet and did not commonly adopt precision P feeding practices, indicating that cows might have been offered dietary P in excess of recommended P requirement. Farmers' tendency to feed P in excess of recommendations increased with herd size, but so did their awareness of P pollution issues and likeliness of testing manure P. However, 68% of farmers did not analyse manure P, indicating that mineral P fertiliser application rates were not adjusted accordingly, highlighting the risk of P being applied beyond crops' requirement. Almost all farmers (96%) were willing to lower dietary P concentration but the uncertainty of P availability in feed ingredients (30%) and concerns over reduced cow fertility (22%) were primary barriers. The willingness to reduce dietary P concentrations was driven by the prospect of reducing environmental damage (28%) and feed costs (27%) and advice from their feed professionals (25%). Most farmers (70%) relied on a feed professional, and these farmers had a higher tendency to analyse their forage P. However, farmers of pasture-based systems relied less on feed professionals. Both farmers (73%) and feed advisers (68%) were unsatisfied with the amount of training on P management available. Therefore, the training on P management needs to be more available and the influence that feed professionals have over P feeding should be better utilised. Study findings demonstrate the importance of considering type of dairy farming systems when developing precision P feeding strategies and highlight the increasing importance of feed professionals in minimising P feeding.
MeSH term(s)	Agriculture ; Animal Feed/analysis ; Animals ; Cattle ; Dairying ; Farms ; Female ; Lactation ; Milk/chemistry ; Phosphorus/analysis ; United Kingdom
Chemical Substances	Phosphorus (27YLU75U4W)
Language	English
Publishing date	2021-06-04
Publishing country	England
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	2257920-5
ISSN	1751-732X ; 1751-7311
ISSN (online)	1751-732X
ISSN	1751-7311
DOI	10.1016/j.animal.2021.100248
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Article ; Online: A blockchain-based information market to incentivise cooperation in swarms of self-interested robots.

Van Calck, Ludéric / Pacheco, Alexandre / Strobel, Volker / Dorigo, Marco / Reina, Andreagiovanni

Scientific reports

2023 Volume 13, Issue 1, Page(s) 20417

Abstract: Robot swarms are generally considered to be composed of cooperative agents that, despite their limited individual capabilities, can perform difficult tasks by working together. However, in open swarms, where different robots can be added to the swarm by ... ...

Abstract	Robot swarms are generally considered to be composed of cooperative agents that, despite their limited individual capabilities, can perform difficult tasks by working together. However, in open swarms, where different robots can be added to the swarm by different parties with potentially competing interests, cooperation is but one of many strategies. We envision an information market where robots can buy and sell information through transactions stored on a distributed blockchain, and where cooperation is encouraged by the economy itself. As a proof of concept, we study a classical foraging task, where exchanging information with other robots is paramount to accomplish the task efficiently. We illustrate that even a single robot that lies to others-a so-called Byzantine robot-can heavily disrupt the swarm. Hence, we devise two protection mechanisms. Through an individual-level protection mechanism, robots are more sceptical about others' information and can detect and discard Byzantine information, at the cost of lower efficiency. Through a systemic protection mechanism based on economic rules regulating robot interactions, robots that sell honest information acquire over time more wealth than Byzantines selling false information. Our simulations show that a well-designed robot economy penalises misinformation spreading and protects the swarm from Byzantine behaviour. We believe economics-inspired swarm robotics is a promising research direction that exploits the timely opportunity for decentralised economies offered by blockchain technology.
Language	English
Publishing date	2023-11-21
Publishing country	England
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	2615211-3
ISSN	2045-2322 ; 2045-2322
ISSN (online)	2045-2322
ISSN	2045-2322
DOI	10.1038/s41598-023-46238-1
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Article ; Online: Blockchain Technology Secures Robot Swarms: A Comparison of Consensus Protocols and Their Resilience to Byzantine Robots.

Strobel, Volker / Castelló Ferrer, Eduardo / Dorigo, Marco

Frontiers in robotics and AI

2020 Volume 7, Page(s) 54

Abstract: Consensus achievement is a crucial capability for robot swarms, for example, for path selection, spatial aggregation, or collective sensing. However, the presence of malfunctioning and malicious robots (Byzantine robots) can make it impossible to achieve ...

Abstract	Consensus achievement is a crucial capability for robot swarms, for example, for path selection, spatial aggregation, or collective sensing. However, the presence of malfunctioning and malicious robots (Byzantine robots) can make it impossible to achieve consensus using classical consensus protocols. In this work, we show how a swarm of robots can achieve consensus even in the presence of Byzantine robots by exploiting blockchain technology. Bitcoin and later blockchain frameworks, such as Ethereum, have revolutionized financial transactions. These frameworks are based on decentralized databases (blockchains) that can achieve secure consensus in peer-to-peer networks. We illustrate our approach in a collective sensing scenario where robots in a swarm are controlled via blockchain-based smart contracts (decentralized protocols executed via blockchain technology) that serve as "meta-controllers" and we compare it to state-of-the-art consensus protocols using a robot swarm simulator. Additionally, we show that our blockchain-based approach can prevent attacks where robots forge a large number of identities (Sybil attacks). The developed robot-blockchain interface is released as open-source software in order to facilitate future research in blockchain-controlled robot swarms. Besides increasing security, we expect the presented approach to be important for data analysis, digital forensics, and robot-to-robot financial transactions in robot swarms.
Language	English
Publishing date	2020-05-12
Publishing country	Switzerland
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	2781824-X
ISSN	2296-9144 ; 2296-9144
ISSN (online)	2296-9144
ISSN	2296-9144
DOI	10.3389/frobt.2020.00054
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Article ; Online: Reflections on the future of swarm robotics.

Dorigo, Marco / Theraulaz, Guy / Trianni, Vito

Science robotics

2020 Volume 5, Issue 49

Abstract: Swarm robotics will tackle real-world applications by leveraging automatic design, heterogeneity, and hierarchical self-organization. ...

Abstract	Swarm robotics will tackle real-world applications by leveraging automatic design, heterogeneity, and hierarchical self-organization.
Language	English
Publishing date	2020-12-02
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article ; Review
ISSN	2470-9476
ISSN (online)	2470-9476
DOI	10.1126/scirobotics.abe4385
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Article ; Online: Secure and secret cooperation in robot swarms.

Ferrer, Eduardo Castelló / Hardjono, Thomas / Pentland, Alex / Dorigo, Marco

Science robotics

2021 Volume 6, Issue 56

Abstract: The importance of swarm robotics systems in both academic research and real-world applications is steadily increasing. However, to reach widespread adoption, new models that ensure the secure cooperation of large groups of robots need to be developed. ... ...

Abstract	The importance of swarm robotics systems in both academic research and real-world applications is steadily increasing. However, to reach widespread adoption, new models that ensure the secure cooperation of large groups of robots need to be developed. This work introduces a method to encapsulate cooperative robotic missions in an authenticated data structure known as a Merkle tree. With this method, operators can provide the "blueprint" of the swarm's mission without disclosing its raw data. In other words, data verification can be separated from data itself. We propose a system where robots in a swarm, to cooperate toward mission completion, have to "prove" their integrity to their peers by exchanging cryptographic proofs. We show the implications of this approach for two different swarm robotics missions: foraging and maze formation. In both missions, swarm robots were able to cooperate and carry out sequential tasks without having explicit knowledge about the mission's high-level objectives. The results presented in this work demonstrate the feasibility of using Merkle trees as a cooperation mechanism for swarm robotics systems in both simulation and real-robot experiments, which has implications for future decentralized robotics applications where security plays a crucial role.
Language	English
Publishing date	2021-07-28
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article ; Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
ISSN	2470-9476
ISSN (online)	2470-9476
DOI	10.1126/scirobotics.abf1538
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Article ; Online: 3D hybrid formation control of an underwater robot swarm: Switching topologies, unmeasurable velocities, and system constraints.

Zhang, Yuwei / Wang, Shaoping / Heinrich, Mary Katherine / Wang, Xingjian / Dorigo, Marco

ISA transactions

2022 Volume 136, Page(s) 345–360

Abstract: This paper addresses formation control of underactuated autonomous underwater vehicles in three-dimensional space, using a hybrid protocol that combines aspects of centralized and decentralized control with constraints that are particular to underwater ... ...

Abstract	This paper addresses formation control of underactuated autonomous underwater vehicles in three-dimensional space, using a hybrid protocol that combines aspects of centralized and decentralized control with constraints that are particular to underwater vehicles, including switching topologies, unmeasurable velocities, and system constraints. Using a distributed leader-follower model, the hybrid formation protocol does not require velocity sensing, access to global information, or static and connected topologies. To handle switching jointly connected networks-that is, to tolerate temporary disconnections-a distributed observer is designed for followers to cooperatively estimate leader states using local measurements and local interactions. On this basis, a compound formation control strategy is proposed to achieve geometric convergence. Firstly, cascaded extended state observers are developed to recover the unmeasurable velocities and unknown dynamic uncertainties induced by internal model uncertainty and external disturbances. Secondly, an improved three-dimensional line-of-sight guidance law at the kinematic level is used to address the underactuated configuration and the nonzero attack and sideslip angles. Thirdly, to overcome potential instability as a result of system constraints, including velocity constraints and input saturations, two adaptive compensators in the dynamic controller are used to address the negative effects of truncation. Using the proposed approach, the estimation errors and formation tracking errors are proved to be uniformly and ultimately bounded. Additionally, the numerical simulation results verify the performance of the approach and demonstrate improvement over both distributed and centralized state-of-the-art approaches.
Language	English
Publishing date	2022-11-26
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	2012746-7
ISSN	1879-2022 ; 0019-0578
ISSN (online)	1879-2022
ISSN	0019-0578
DOI	10.1016/j.isatra.2022.11.014
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Article ; Online: Determinants of phosphorus balance and use efficiency in diverse dairy farming systems

Harrison, B.P. / Dorigo, M. / Reynolds, C.K. / Sinclair, L.A. / Dijkstra, J. / Ray, P.P.

Agricultural Systems

2021 Volume 194

Abstract: CONTEXT: Identifying the determinants of phosphorus (P) balance and use efficiency (PUE) is critical to improving the sustainability of dairy farming in countries operating diverse dairy farming systems because each system contributes to eutrophication ... ...

Abstract	CONTEXT: Identifying the determinants of phosphorus (P) balance and use efficiency (PUE) is critical to improving the sustainability of dairy farming in countries operating diverse dairy farming systems because each system contributes to eutrophication through different pathways. However, information about P balance and PUE across diverse dairy farming systems is scarce. OBJECTIVE: The current study aimed to use a novel approach to determine P balance and PUE, and identify their key determinants across diverse dairy farming systems in GB. METHODS: Data from 29 dairy farms representing systems with differing feeding approaches and production levels was collected from farm records or generated by quantifying P concentration in feed, manure, and soil samples. The methodology of the nutrient management tool ‘Planning for Land Application of Nutrients for Efficiency and the environmenT (PLANET) and the principles of ‘Annual Nutrient Cycling Assessment’ (ANCA) were used to calculate farm-gate P balance (FPB) and soil-surface P balance (SPB), respectively. Differences in P balance and PUE between dairy farming systems were investigated using ANOVA. Determinants of P balance and PUE were identified using multiple stepwise linear regressions. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: The current study demonstrated a novel approach of calculating FPB and SPB that captures differences in the P concentration of manure and milk between systems. Phosphorus surplus was higher and PUE was lower in housed systems compared to pasture-based systems (except for a Spring-calving system grazing ≥274 days/year) primarily because of greater import of concentrate feed, highlighting the importance of reducing concentrate feed import into housed systems to minimise P import. Farms with greater inclusion rate of home-grown feed (primarily forages) in their herds' diet had higher PUE and lower P surplus. Thus, pasture-based systems could improve PUE by increasing the inclusion rate of home-grown feeds in the herd diet only if they maintain a stocking rate ...
Keywords	Diverse dairy farming systems ; Phosphorus ; Phosphorus balance ; Phosphorus use efficiency ; Sustainable intensification
Subject code	910
Language	English
Publishing country	nl
Document type	Article ; Online
ZDB-ID	413255-5
ISSN	0308-521X
ISSN	0308-521X
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Article ; Online: Self-Reconfigurable Hierarchical Frameworks for Formation Control of Robot Swarms.

Zhang, Yuwei / Oguz, Sinan / Wang, Shaoping / Garone, Emanuele / Wang, Xingjian / Dorigo, Marco / Heinrich, Mary Katherine

IEEE transactions on cybernetics

2023 Volume 54, Issue 1, Page(s) 87–100

Abstract: Hierarchical frameworks-a special class of directed frameworks with a layer-by-layer architecture-can be an effective mechanism to coordinate robot swarms. Their effectiveness was recently demonstrated by the mergeable nervous systems paradigm (Mathews ... ...

Abstract	Hierarchical frameworks-a special class of directed frameworks with a layer-by-layer architecture-can be an effective mechanism to coordinate robot swarms. Their effectiveness was recently demonstrated by the mergeable nervous systems paradigm (Mathews et al., 2017), in which a robot swarm can switch dynamically between distributed and centralized control depending on the task, using self-organized hierarchical frameworks. New theoretical foundations are required to use this paradigm for formation control of large swarms. In particular, the systematic and mathematically analyzable organization and reorganization of hierarchical frameworks in a robot swarm is still an open problem. Although methods for framework construction and formation maintenance via rigidity theory exist in the literature, they do not address cases of hierarchy in a robot swarm. In this article, we extend bearing rigidity to directed topologies and extend the Henneberg constructions to generate self-organized hierarchical frameworks with bearing rigidity. We investigate three-key self-reconfiguration problems: 1) framework merging; 2) robot departure; and 3) framework splitting. We also derive the mathematical conditions of these problems and then develop algorithms that preserve rigidity and hierarchy using only local information. Our approach can be used for formation control generally, as in principle it can be coupled with any control law that makes use of bearing rigidity. To demonstrate and validate our proposed hierarchical frameworks and methods, we apply them to four scenarios of reactive formation control using an example control law.
Language	English
Publishing date	2023-12-20
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article
ISSN	2168-2275
ISSN (online)	2168-2275
DOI	10.1109/TCYB.2023.3237731
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