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Article ; Online: Revisiting causal pluralism: Intention, process, and dependency in cases of double prevention.

Thanawala, Huseina / Erb, Christopher D

2024 Volume 248, Page(s) 105786

Abstract: Causal pluralism proposes that humans can reason about causes and effects in terms of both dependency and process relations, depending on the scenario. Support for this view is provided by responses to double prevention scenarios in which an affector ... ...

Abstract	Causal pluralism proposes that humans can reason about causes and effects in terms of both dependency and process relations, depending on the scenario. Support for this view is provided by responses to double prevention scenarios in which an affector attempts to bring about an outcome, a preventer attempts to prevent the outcome, and a double preventer intervenes to stop the preventer's prevention attempt. Previous research indicates that reasoners award the affector high causal ratings regardless of whether their action was executed intentionally, whereas reasoners only award the double preventer high causal ratings when the double preventer acts intentionally. These results were interpreted as evidence that intentional actions prompt reasoners to differentially weight separately maintained representations of dependency and process relations. The current study presents three challenges to this causal pluralism account by (1) questioning whether intentionality only affects causal ratings by increasing the weighting placed on dependency relations during reasoning (Experiments 1-2), (2) presenting evidence consistent with the possibility that reasoners interpret the double preventer's action in terms of a process relation (Experiments 1-2), and (3) demonstrating that an unintentional double preventer can receive significantly higher causal ratings than an intentional affector when the order in which the characters act is altered (Experiments 3-4). These results underscore the need to revisit fundamental questions regarding how reasoners form, maintain, and reason over representations of causal scenarios featuring intentional actions.
Language	English
Publishing date	2024-04-16
Publishing country	Netherlands
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	1499940-7
ISSN	1873-7838 ; 0010-0277
ISSN (online)	1873-7838
ISSN	0010-0277
DOI	10.1016/j.cognition.2024.105786
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Article ; Online: Cognitive control across the lifespan: Congruency effects reveal divergent developmental trajectories.

Erb, Christopher D / Germine, Laura / Hartshorne, Joshua K

Journal of experimental psychology. General

2023 Volume 152, Issue 11, Page(s) 3285–3291

Abstract: The Simon, Stroop, and Eriksen flanker tasks are commonly used to assess cognitive control across the lifespan. However, it remains unclear whether these three tasks in fact measure the same cognitive abilities and in the same proportion. We take a ... ...

Abstract	The Simon, Stroop, and Eriksen flanker tasks are commonly used to assess cognitive control across the lifespan. However, it remains unclear whether these three tasks in fact measure the same cognitive abilities and in the same proportion. We take a developmental approach to this question: if the Simon, Stroop, and flanker tasks all roughly measure the same capacity, they should show similar patterns of age-related change. We present data from two massive online cross-sectional studies: Study 1 included 9,585 native English speakers between 10 and 80 years of age who completed the Simon and Stroop tasks, and Study 2 included 13,448 English speakers between 10 and 79 years of age who completed the flanker task. Of the three tasks, only the flanker task revealed an inverted U-shaped developmental trajectory, with performance improving until approximately 23 years of age and declining starting around 40 years of age. Performance on the Simon and Stroop tasks peaked around 34 and 26 years of age, respectively, and did not decline significantly in later life, though it is possible that age-related declines would be observed with more difficult versions of the tasks. Although the Simon and Stroop tasks are commonly interpreted to target similar underlying processes, we observed near zero correlations between the congruency effects observed in each task in terms of both accuracy and response time. We discuss these results in light of recent debates regarding the suitability of these tasks for assessing developmental and individual differences in cognitive control. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).
Language	English
Publishing date	2023-06-08
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	189732-9
ISSN	1939-2222 ; 0096-3445
ISSN (online)	1939-2222
ISSN	0096-3445
DOI	10.1037/xge0001429
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Zs.A 2255: Show issues

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Article ; Online: Moving beyond response times with accessible measures of manual dynamics.

Smith, Katie Ann / Morrison, Samara / Henderson, Annette M E / Erb, Christopher D

Scientific reports

2022 Volume 12, Issue 1, Page(s) 19065

Abstract: Button-press measures of response time (RT) and accuracy have long served a central role in psychological research. However, RT and accuracy provide limited insight into how cognitive processes unfold over time. To address this limitation, researchers ... ...

Abstract	Button-press measures of response time (RT) and accuracy have long served a central role in psychological research. However, RT and accuracy provide limited insight into how cognitive processes unfold over time. To address this limitation, researchers have used hand-tracking techniques to investigate how cognitive processes unfold over the course of a response, are modulated by recent experience, and function across the lifespan. Despite the efficacy of these techniques for investigating a wide range of psychological phenomena, widespread adoption of hand-tracking techniques within the field is hindered by a range of factors, including equipment costs and the use of specialized software. Here, we demonstrate that the behavioral dynamics previously observed with specialized motion-tracking equipment in an Eriksen flanker task can be captured with an affordable, portable, and easy-to-assemble response box. Six-to-eight-year-olds and adults (N = 90) completed a computerized version of the flanker task by pressing and holding a central button until a stimulus array appeared. Participants then responded by releasing the central button and reaching to press one of two response buttons. This method allowed RT to be separated into initiation time (when the central button was released) and movement time (time elapsed between initiation and completion of the response). Consistent with previous research using motion-tracking techniques, initiation times and movement times revealed distinct patterns of effects across trials and between age groups, indicating that the method used in the current study presents a simple solution for researchers from across the psychological and brain sciences looking to move beyond RTs.
MeSH term(s)	Adult ; Humans ; Reaction Time/physiology ; Movement/physiology ; Cognition/physiology ; Brain ; Motion
Language	English
Publishing date	2022-11-09
Publishing country	England
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	2615211-3
ISSN	2045-2322 ; 2045-2322
ISSN (online)	2045-2322
ISSN	2045-2322
DOI	10.1038/s41598-022-20579-9
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Article ; Online: Layers of latent effects in cognitive control: An EEG investigation.

Erb, Christopher D / Cavanagh, James F

Acta psychologica

2019 Volume 195, Page(s) 1–11

Abstract: Recent research demonstrates that two components of reaching behavior - initiation time (the time elapsed from stimulus presentation to movement initiation) and reach curvature (the degree to which a reach movement deviates from a direct path to the ... ...

Abstract	Recent research demonstrates that two components of reaching behavior - initiation time (the time elapsed from stimulus presentation to movement initiation) and reach curvature (the degree to which a reach movement deviates from a direct path to the selected response) - exhibit distinct cross-trial dynamics in cognitive control tasks, indicating that these components of behavior reflect two dissociable processes underlying cognitive control: a threshold adjustment process involving the inhibition of motor output and a controlled selection process involving the recruitment of top-down resources to support goal-relevant behavior. The current study investigates the extent to which the cross-trial dynamics previously observed in reaching behavior in the Eriksen flanker task are reflected in event-related potentials during standard button-press responses. Candidate EEG measures of the threshold adjustment process (N2 and Pre-LRP amplitudes) failed to reveal the cross-trial dynamics previously observed in initiation times. Slow wave amplitudes exhibited a close correspondence to the cross-trial dynamics observed in reach curvatures, indicating that the measure is sensitive to some functions of the controlled selection process. Further, LRP slopes presented a close correspondence to the cross-trial dynamics observed in response times, indicating that this measure reflects the combined output of the threshold adjustment process and controlled selection process. The implications of these findings for future research examining the links among behavioral and neural dynamics are discussed.
MeSH term(s)	Adult ; Cognition/physiology ; Electroencephalography ; Evoked Potentials/physiology ; Female ; Humans ; Inhibition, Psychological ; Male ; Movement ; Reaction Time/physiology ; Young Adult
Language	English
Publishing date	2019-03-01
Publishing country	Netherlands
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	1480049-4
ISSN	1873-6297 ; 0001-6918
ISSN (online)	1873-6297
ISSN	0001-6918
DOI	10.1016/j.actpsy.2019.02.004
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Article ; Online: Multiple expectancies underlie the congruency sequence effect in confound-minimized tasks.

Erb, Christopher D / Aschenbrenner, Andrew J

Acta psychologica

2019 Volume 198, Page(s) 102869

Abstract: The congruency sequence effect (CSE) occurs when the congruency effect observed in tasks such as the Eriksen flanker task is smaller on trials preceded by an incongruent trial relative to trials preceded by a congruent trial. The CSE has been attributed ... ...

Abstract	The congruency sequence effect (CSE) occurs when the congruency effect observed in tasks such as the Eriksen flanker task is smaller on trials preceded by an incongruent trial relative to trials preceded by a congruent trial. The CSE has been attributed to a range of factors including repetition expectancy, conflict monitoring, feature integration, and contingency learning. To clarify the debate surrounding the CSE and the mechanisms underlying its occurrence, researchers have developed confound-minimized congruency tasks designed to control for feature-integration and contingency-learning effects. A CSE is often observed in confound-minimized tasks, indicating that the effect is driven by repetition expectancy, conflict monitoring, or a combination of the two. Here, we propose and test a variant of the repetition expectancy account that emphasizes how multiple expectations can be formed simultaneously based upon the congruency type (congruent vs. incongruent) and the congruency repetition type (congruency repetition vs. congruency alternation) of the most recent trial. Data from confound-minimized versions of the prime-probe task were found to support this novel account. Data from confound-minimized versions of the Eriksen flanker, Simon, and Stroop tasks indicate that feature-integration confounds often remain in these tasks, potentially undermining the conclusions of previous work. We discuss the implications of these findings for ongoing theoretical debates surrounding the CSE.
MeSH term(s)	Adolescent ; Adult ; Conditioning, Classical/physiology ; Conflict (Psychology) ; Female ; Humans ; Male ; Motivation/physiology ; Photic Stimulation/methods ; Psychomotor Performance/physiology ; Reaction Time/physiology ; Stroop Test ; Young Adult
Language	English
Publishing date	2019-06-19
Publishing country	Netherlands
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	1480049-4
ISSN	1873-6297 ; 0001-6918
ISSN (online)	1873-6297
ISSN	0001-6918
DOI	10.1016/j.actpsy.2019.102869
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Article ; Online: Attentional capture in goal-directed action during childhood, adolescence, and early adulthood.

Erb, Christopher D / Moher, Jeff / Marcovitch, Stuart

Journal of experimental child psychology

2021 Volume 214, Page(s) 105273

Abstract: Attentional capture occurs when salient but task-irrelevant information disrupts our ability to respond to task-relevant information. Although attentional capture costs have been found to decrease between childhood and adulthood, it is currently unclear ... ...

Abstract	Attentional capture occurs when salient but task-irrelevant information disrupts our ability to respond to task-relevant information. Although attentional capture costs have been found to decrease between childhood and adulthood, it is currently unclear the extent to which such age-related changes reflect an improved ability to recover from attentional capture or to avoid attentional capture. In addition, recent research using hand-tracking techniques with adults indicates that attentional capture by a distractor can generate response activations corresponding to the distractor's location, consistent with action-centered models of attention. However, it is unknown whether attentional capture can also result in the capture of action in children and adolescents. Therefore, we presented 5-year-olds, 9-year-olds, 13- and 14-year-olds, and adults (N = 96) with a singleton search task in which participants responded by reaching to touch targets on a digital display. Consistent with action-centered models of attention, distractor effects were evident in each age group's movement trajectories. In contrast to movement trajectories, movement times revealed significant age-related reductions in the costs of attentional capture, suggesting that age-related improvements in attentional control may be driven in part by an enhanced ability to recover from-as opposed to avoid-attentional capture. Children's performance was also significantly affected by response repetition effects, indicating that children may be more susceptible to interference from a wider range of task-irrelevant factors than adults. In addition to presenting novel insights into the development of attention and action, these results highlight the benefits of incorporating hand-tracking techniques into developmental research.
MeSH term(s)	Adolescent ; Adult ; Attention ; Child ; Child, Preschool ; Goals ; Humans ; Movement ; Reaction Time ; Touch Perception
Language	English
Publishing date	2021-09-09
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article ; Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
ZDB-ID	218137-x
ISSN	1096-0457 ; 0022-0965
ISSN (online)	1096-0457
ISSN	0022-0965
DOI	10.1016/j.jecp.2021.105273
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Article ; Online: Tracking the Within-Trial, Cross-Trial, and Developmental Dynamics of Cognitive Control: Evidence From the Simon Task.

Erb, Christopher D / Marcovitch, Stuart

Child development

2018 Volume 90, Issue 6, Page(s) e831–e848

Abstract: Six- to 8-year-olds, 10- to 12-year-olds, and adults (N = 108) performed the Simon task by reaching to targets on a digital display. The spatial and temporal characteristics of their movements were used to assess how two key processes underlying ... ...

Abstract	Six- to 8-year-olds, 10- to 12-year-olds, and adults (N = 108) performed the Simon task by reaching to targets on a digital display. The spatial and temporal characteristics of their movements were used to assess how two key processes underlying cognitive control-a threshold adjustment process and a controlled selection process-unfold over the course of a response (within-trial dynamics), are modulated by recent experience (cross-trial dynamics), and contribute to age-related gains in control (developmental dynamics). The results indicate that the controlled selection process undergoes a more protracted development than the threshold adjustment process. The results also shed light on a prominent debate concerning the cross-trial dynamics of control by supporting the feature integration account over the conflict adaptation account.
MeSH term(s)	Adult ; Child ; Child Development/physiology ; Executive Function/physiology ; Female ; Humans ; Male ; Psychomotor Performance/physiology ; Young Adult
Language	English
Publishing date	2018-06-29
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article ; Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
ZDB-ID	215602-7
ISSN	1467-8624 ; 0009-3920
ISSN (online)	1467-8624
ISSN	0009-3920
DOI	10.1111/cdev.13111
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Article ; Online: Deconstructing the Gratton effect: Targeting dissociable trial sequence effects in children, pre-adolescents, and adults.

Erb, Christopher D / Marcovitch, Stuart

Cognition

2018 Volume 179, Page(s) 150–162

Abstract: The Gratton effect refers to the observation that performance on congruency tasks is often enhanced when the congruency of the current trial matches that of the previous trial. This effect has been at the center of recent debates in the literature on ... ...

Abstract	The Gratton effect refers to the observation that performance on congruency tasks is often enhanced when the congruency of the current trial matches that of the previous trial. This effect has been at the center of recent debates in the literature on cognitive control as researchers have sought to identify the cognitive and neural underpinnings of the effect. Here, we use a technique known as reach tracking to demonstrate that the Gratton effect originally observed in the flanker task is not a singular effect but the result of two separate trial sequence effects that impact dissociable processes underlying cognitive control. Further, our results indicate that these dissociable processes follow divergent developmental trajectories across childhood, pre-adolescence, and adulthood. Taken together, these findings suggest that manual dynamics can be used to disentangle how key processes underlying cognitive control contribute to the response time effects observed across a wide range of cognitive tasks and age groups.
MeSH term(s)	Adolescent ; Adult ; Age Factors ; Child ; Cognition ; Conflict (Psychology) ; Executive Function ; Female ; Humans ; Male ; Neuropsychological Tests ; Psychomotor Performance ; Reaction Time ; Young Adult
Language	English
Publishing date	2018-06-23
Publishing country	Netherlands
Document type	Journal Article ; Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
ZDB-ID	1499940-7
ISSN	1873-7838 ; 0010-0277
ISSN (online)	1873-7838
ISSN	0010-0277
DOI	10.1016/j.cognition.2018.06.007
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Article ; Online: Tracking the dynamics of global and competitive inhibition in early and late adulthood: Evidence from the flanker task.

Erb, Christopher D / Touron, Dayna R / Marcovitch, Stuart

Psychology and aging

2020 Volume 35, Issue 5, Page(s) 729–743

Abstract: Inhibitory control is proposed to involve 2 dissociable processes that feature distinct types of inhibition: a threshold adjustment process involving the global inhibition of motor output and a controlled selection process involving competitive ... ...

Abstract	Inhibitory control is proposed to involve 2 dissociable processes that feature distinct types of inhibition: a threshold adjustment process involving the global inhibition of motor output and a controlled selection process involving competitive inhibition among coactive responses. Recent research with children and young adults indicates that the functioning of these processes can be targeted by measuring participants' hand movements as they perform inhibitory control tasks by reaching to touch response options on a digital display. The current study explores (a) whether this method can be used to target the functioning of the threshold adjustment process and controlled selection process in adults 65 to 75 years of age and, if so, (b) whether the functioning of each process changes between early and late adulthood. Results from the Eriksen flanker task indicate that reach tracking can be used to target the functioning of each process in late adulthood, with older adults and young adults generating similar patterns of initiation time and curvature effects. The congruency effect observed in response times was significantly larger in older adults than in young adults, indicating that inhibitory control declines in late adulthood. Importantly, this effect was specific to initiation times, suggesting that the threshold adjustment process functions differently in early adulthood than in late adulthood. These results present a new perspective on how age-related differences in inhibitory control are conceptualized and assessed, and raise important questions concerning how the threshold adjustment and controlled selection processes function across a wider range of tasks in late adulthood. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).
MeSH term(s)	Adolescent ; Adult ; Aged ; Aging/physiology ; Female ; Humans ; Inhibition, Psychological ; Male ; Young Adult
Language	English
Publishing date	2020-08-03
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	635596-1
ISSN	1939-1498 ; 0882-7974
ISSN (online)	1939-1498
ISSN	0882-7974
DOI	10.1037/pag0000435
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Article ; Online: Tracking continuities in the flanker task: From continuous flow to movement trajectories.

Erb, Christopher D / Smith, Katie A / Moher, Jeff

Attention, perception & psychophysics

2020 Volume 83, Issue 2, Page(s) 731–747

Abstract: Since its introduction nearly a half century ago, the Eriksen flanker task has prompted multiple theoretical and methodological advancements in the study of attention and control. Early research with the task inspired the continuous flow model of ... ...

Abstract	Since its introduction nearly a half century ago, the Eriksen flanker task has prompted multiple theoretical and methodological advancements in the study of attention and control. Early research with the task inspired the continuous flow model of information processing, which in turn prompted researchers to investigate the dynamics of response competition using continuous behavioral measures. In recent years, the use of such measures in psychological research has increased dramatically as hand-tracking techniques have become more widely accessible. The current article highlights commonly overlooked links between Eriksen and colleagues' pioneering research investigating the continuous flow model and recent hand-tracking research investigating the dynamics of attention and control. After providing an overview of two hand-tracking techniques frequently used in psychological research, we review a series of recent studies that have used these techniques to investigate how the processes underlying attention and control (a) unfold over the course of a response (within-trial dynamics), (b) are impacted by recent experience (cross-trial dynamics), and (c) contribute to age-related changes observed across the life span (developmental dynamics). In addition to highlighting the central role that the flanker task has played in advancing psychological research and theory, this review underscores the advantages of collecting continuous behavioral measures, both in Eriksen's seminal work and in contemporary hand-tracking studies.
MeSH term(s)	Attention ; Cognition ; Hand ; Humans ; Movement
Language	English
Publishing date	2020-10-21
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article ; Review
ZDB-ID	2464550-3
ISSN	1943-393X ; 1943-3921
ISSN (online)	1943-393X
ISSN	1943-3921
DOI	10.3758/s13414-020-02154-4
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