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Article ; Online: Diversity, prevalence, and intensity of gastrointestinal helminth infections in migratory, resident, and sedentary plains zebras (Equus quagga) in Masai Mara National Reserve and Lake Nakuru National Park, Kenya.

Maina, L G M / Maingi, N / Ng'ang'a, C J / Waruiru, R M / Gakuya, F

Veterinary parasitology, regional studies and reports

2022 Volume 33, Page(s) 100750

Abstract: The diversity, prevalence and intensity of parasitic infections are influenced by factors such as movement patterns and land area available to the host. Zebras are known to harbour various genera of gastrointestinal helminths and facilitate parasite ... ...

Abstract	The diversity, prevalence and intensity of parasitic infections are influenced by factors such as movement patterns and land area available to the host. Zebras are known to harbour various genera of gastrointestinal helminths and facilitate parasite movement across large geographic areas through migration. Despite the harmful effects of helminths and their consequences on host population dynamics, little is known regarding helminth infection patterns in migratory, resident, and sedentary zebras. This study compared the diversity, prevalence, and intensity of helminth infections in zebras with different host movement patterns and space availability. Faecal samples were collected from migratory, resident, and sedentary groups of zebras between 2014 and 2015 and screened for helminth infection. They were infected by diverse groups of helminths including nematodes, trematodes and cestodes with the most prevalent being strongyle type nematodes. No significant difference in the diversity and prevalence was observed between the "three groups". Larvae were also recovered and identified species, cyathostomes, Strongylus edentatus, S.vulgaris, S. equinus, and Trichostronglus in order of abundance. The intensity of infection with the strongyle type nematodes, was highest in the migratory, then sedentary and lowest in resident zebras. It is plausible that the migratory zebras have higher energy demands and poor nutrition, resulting in reduced immune function hence high nematode burdens. Similarly, the sedentary population had high nematode burdens possibly due to high pasture contamination and depressed immunity due to the artificially restricted movement. The latter observation is particularly important in the design and size of sanctuaries in relation to parasitism.
MeSH term(s)	Animals ; Equidae/parasitology ; Gastrointestinal Diseases/parasitology ; Gastrointestinal Diseases/veterinary ; Helminths ; Kenya/epidemiology ; Lakes ; Nematoda ; Parks, Recreational ; Prevalence ; Rodentia
Language	English
Publishing date	2022-06-14
Publishing country	Netherlands
Document type	Journal Article ; Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
ISSN	2405-9390
ISSN (online)	2405-9390
DOI	10.1016/j.vprsr.2022.100750
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Article: Diversity, prevalence, and intensity of gastrointestinal helminth infections in migratory, resident, and sedentary plains zebras (Equus quagga) in Masai Mara National Reserve and Lake Nakuru National Park, Kenya

Maina, L.G. M / Maingi, N. / Ng'ang'a, C.J. / Waruiru, R.M. / Gakuya, F.

Veterinary Parasitology: Regional Studies and Reports. 2022 Aug., v. 33

2022

Abstract	The diversity, prevalence and intensity of parasitic infections are influenced by factors such as movement patterns and land area available to the host. Zebras are known to harbour various genera of gastrointestinal helminths and facilitate parasite movement across large geographic areas through migration. Despite the harmful effects of helminths and their consequences on host population dynamics, little is known regarding helminth infection patterns in migratory, resident, and sedentary zebras. This study compared the diversity, prevalence, and intensity of helminth infections in zebras with different host movement patterns and space availability. Faecal samples were collected from migratory, resident, and sedentary groups of zebras between 2014 and 2015 and screened for helminth infection. They were infected by diverse groups of helminths including nematodes, trematodes and cestodes with the most prevalent being strongyle type nematodes. No significant difference in the diversity and prevalence was observed between the “three groups”. Larvae were also recovered and identified species, cyathostomes, Strongylus edentatus, S.vulgaris, S. equinus, and Trichostronglus in order of abundance. The intensity of infection with the strongyle type nematodes, was highest in the migratory, then sedentary and lowest in resident zebras. It is plausible that the migratory zebras have higher energy demands and poor nutrition, resulting in reduced immune function hence high nematode burdens. Similarly, the sedentary population had high nematode burdens possibly due to high pasture contamination and depressed immunity due to the artificially restricted movement. The latter observation is particularly important in the design and size of sanctuaries in relation to parasitism.
Keywords	Cestoda ; Cyathostominae ; Equus burchellii ; Strongylus edentatus ; Trematoda ; energy ; gastrointestinal system ; helminthiasis ; helminths ; immune response ; lakes ; migratory behavior ; national parks ; nutrition ; parasitism ; pastures ; population dynamics ; veterinary parasitology ; Kenya
Language	English
Dates of publication	2022-08
Publishing place	Elsevier B.V.
Document type	Article
ISSN	2405-9390
DOI	10.1016/j.vprsr.2022.100750
Database	NAL-Catalogue (AGRICOLA)

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Article ; Online: Evidence of co-exposure with Brucella spp, Coxiella burnetii, and Rift Valley fever virus among various species of wildlife in Kenya

Gakuya, F. / Akoko, James M. / Wambua, Lillian / Nyamota, Richard / Ronoh, B. / Lekolool, I. / Mwatondo, Athman / Muturi, Mathew / Ouma, C. / Nthiwa, D. / Middlebrook, E. / Fair, J. / Gachohi, J. / Njenga, K. / Bett, Bernard K.

PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases

2022

Abstract: Background Co-infection, especially with pathogens of dissimilar genetic makeup, may result in a more devastating impact on the host. Investigations on co-infection with neglected zoonotic pathogens in wildlife are necessary to inform appropriate ... ...

Abstract	Background Co-infection, especially with pathogens of dissimilar genetic makeup, may result in a more devastating impact on the host. Investigations on co-infection with neglected zoonotic pathogens in wildlife are necessary to inform appropriate prevention and control strategies to reduce disease burden in wildlife and the potential transmission of these pathogens between wildlife, livestock and humans. This study assessed co-exposure of various Kenyan wildflife species with Brucella spp, Coxiella burnetii and Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV). Methodology A total of 363 sera from 16 different wildlife species, most of them (92.6%) herbivores, were analysed by Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for IgG antibodies against Brucella spp, C. burnetii and RVFV. Further, 280 of these were tested by PCR to identify Brucella species. Results Of the 16 wildlife species tested, 15 (93.8%) were seropositive for at least one of the pathogens. Mean seropositivities were 18.9% (95% CI: 15.0–23.3) for RVFV, 13.7% (95% CI: 10.3–17.7) for Brucella spp and 9.1% (95% CI: 6.3–12.5) for C. burnetii. Buffaloes (n = 269) had higher seropositivity for Brucella spp. (17.1%, 95% CI: 13.0–21.7%) and RVFV (23.4%, 95% CI: 18.6–28.6%), while giraffes (n = 36) had the highest seropositivity for C. burnetii (44.4%, 95% CI: 27.9–61.9%). Importantly, 23 of the 93 (24.7%) animals positive for at least one pathogen were co-exposed, with 25.4% (18/71) of the positive buffaloes positive for brucellosis and RVFV. On molecular analysis, Brucella DNA was detected in 46 (19.5%, CI: 14.9–24.7) samples, with 4 (8.6%, 95% CI: 2.2–15.8) being identified as B. melitensis. The Fisher’s Exact test indicated that seropositivity varied significantly within the different animal families, with Brucella (p = 0.013), C. burnetii (p = <0.001) and RVFV (p = 0.007). Location was also significantly associated (p = <0.001) with Brucella spp. and C. burnetii seropositivities. Conclusion Of ~20% of Kenyan wildlife that are seropositive for Brucella spp, C. ...
Keywords	wildlife ; zoonoses ; brucella ; coxiella burnetii ; rift valley fever virus ; animal diseases
Language	English
Publishing date	2022-08-09T08:47:32Z
Publisher	Public Library of Science
Publishing country	fr
Document type	Article ; Online
Database	BASE - Bielefeld Academic Search Engine (life sciences selection)

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Article ; Online: Metagenomic investigation of ticks from Kenyan wildlife reveals diverse microbial pathogens and new country pathogen records

Ergunay, K. / Mutinda, M. / Bourke, B. / Justi, S.A. / Caicedo-Quiroga, L. / Kamau, J. / Mutura, S. / Akunda, I.K. / Cook, Elizabeth A.J. / Gakuya, F. / Omondi, P. / Murray, S. / Zimmerman, D. / Linton, Y.-M.

Frontiers in Microbiology

2022

Abstract: Focusing on the utility of ticks as xenosurveillance sentinels to expose circulating pathogens in Kenyan drylands, host-feeding ticks collected from wild ungulates [buffaloes, elephants, giraffes, hartebeest, impala, rhinoceros (black and white), zebras ( ...

Abstract	Focusing on the utility of ticks as xenosurveillance sentinels to expose circulating pathogens in Kenyan drylands, host-feeding ticks collected from wild ungulates [buffaloes, elephants, giraffes, hartebeest, impala, rhinoceros (black and white), zebras (Grévy’s and plains)], carnivores (leopards, lions, spotted hyenas, wild dogs), as well as regular domestic and Boran cattle were screened for pathogens using metagenomics. A total of 75 host-feeding ticks [Rhipicephalus (97.3%) and Amblyomma (2.7%)] collected from 15 vertebrate taxa were sequenced in 46 pools. Fifty-six pathogenic bacterial species were detected in 35 pools analyzed for pathogens and relative abundances of major phyla. The most frequently observed species was Escherichia coli (62.8%), followed by Proteus mirabilis (48.5%) and Coxiella burnetii (45.7%). Francisella tularemia and Jingmen tick virus (JMTV) were detected in 14.2 and 13% of the pools, respectively, in ticks collected from wild animals and cattle. This is one of the first reports of JMTV in Kenya, and phylogenetic reconstruction revealed significant divergence from previously known isolates and related viruses. Eight fungal species with human pathogenicity were detected in 5 pools (10.8%). The vector-borne filarial pathogens (Brugia malayi, Dirofilaria immitis, Loa loa), protozoa (Plasmodium spp., Trypanosoma cruzi), and environmental and water-/food-borne pathogens (Entamoeba histolytica, Encephalitozoon intestinalis, Naegleria fowleri, Schistosoma spp., Toxoplasma gondii, and Trichinella spiralis) were detected. Documented viruses included human mastadenovirus C, Epstein-Barr virus and bovine herpesvirus 5, Trinbago virus, and Guarapuava tymovirus-like virus 1. Our findings confirmed that host-feeding ticks are an efficient sentinel for xenosurveillance and demonstrate clear potential for wildlife-livestock-human pathogen transfer in the Kenyan landscape.
Keywords	wildlife ; pathogens ; genomics ; microbiology
Language	English
Publishing date	2022-07-05T14:59:57Z
Publisher	Frontiers Media
Publishing country	fr
Document type	Article ; Online
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Article ; Online: Mapping brucellosis risk in Kenya and its implications for control strategies in sub-Saharan Africa.

Akoko, James M / Mwatondo, Athman / Muturi, Mathew / Wambua, Lillian / Abkallo, Hussein M / Nyamota, Richard / Bosire, Caroline / Oloo, Stephen / Limbaso, Konongoi S / Gakuya, Francis / Nthiwa, Daniel / Bartlow, Andrew / Middlebrook, Earl / Fair, Jeanne / Ogutu, Joseph O / Gachohi, John / Njenga, Kariuki / Bett, Bernard

Scientific reports

2023 Volume 13, Issue 1, Page(s) 20192

Abstract: In Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), effective brucellosis control is limited, in part, by the lack of long-term commitments by governments to control the disease and the absence of reliable national human and livestock population-based data to inform policies. ... ...

Abstract	In Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), effective brucellosis control is limited, in part, by the lack of long-term commitments by governments to control the disease and the absence of reliable national human and livestock population-based data to inform policies. Therefore, we conducted a study to establish the national prevalence and develop a risk map for Brucella spp. in cattle to contribute to plans to eliminate the disease in Kenya by the year 2040. We randomly generated 268 geolocations and distributed them across Kenya, proportionate to the area of each of the five agroecological zones and the associated cattle population. Cattle herds closest to each selected geolocation were identified for sampling. Up to 25 cattle were sampled per geolocation and a semi-structured questionnaire was administered to their owners. We tested 6,593 cattle samples for Brucella immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies using an Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). We assessed potential risk factors and performed spatial analyses and prevalence mapping using approximate Bayesian inference implemented via the integrated nested Laplace approximation (INLA) method. The national Brucella spp. prevalence was 6.8% (95% CI: 6.2-7.4%). Exposure levels varied significantly between agro-ecological zones, with a high of 8.5% in the very arid zone with the lowest agricultural potential relative to a low of 0.0% in the agro-alpine zone with the highest agricultural potential. Additionally, seroprevalence increased with herd size, and the odds of seropositivity were significantly higher for females and adult animals than for males or calves. Similarly, animals with a history of abortion, or with multiple reproductive syndromes had higher seropositivity than those without. At the herd level, the risk of Brucella spp. transmission was higher in larger herds, and herds with a history of reproductive problems such as abortion, giving birth to weak calves, or having swollen testes. Geographic localities with high Brucella seroprevalence occurred in northern, eastern, and southern regions of Kenya all primarily characterized by semi-arid or arid agro-ecological zones dominated by livestock pastoralism interspersed with vast areas with mixed livestock-wildlife systems. The large spatial extent of our survey provides compelling evidence for the widespread geographical distribution of brucellosis risk across Kenya in a manner easily understandable for policymakers. Our findings can provide a basis for risk-stratified pilot studies aiming to investigate the cost-effectiveness and efficacy of singular and combined preventive intervention strategies that seek to inform Kenya's Brucellosis Control Policy.
MeSH term(s)	Animals ; Cattle ; Female ; Male ; Pregnancy ; Animal Husbandry ; Antibodies, Bacterial ; Bayes Theorem ; Brucella ; Brucellosis/epidemiology ; Brucellosis/veterinary ; Cross-Sectional Studies ; Kenya/epidemiology ; Livestock ; Risk Factors ; Seroepidemiologic Studies
Chemical Substances	Antibodies, Bacterial
Language	English
Publishing date	2023-11-18
Publishing country	England
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	2615211-3
ISSN	2045-2322 ; 2045-2322
ISSN (online)	2045-2322
ISSN	2045-2322
DOI	10.1038/s41598-023-47628-1
Database	MEDical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System OnLINE

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Article ; Online: Viral Population Diversity during Co-Infection of Foot-And-Mouth Disease Virus Serotypes SAT1 and SAT2 in African Buffalo in Kenya.

Palinski, Rachel M / Brito, Barbara / Jaya, Frederick R / Sangula, Abraham / Gakuya, Francis / Bertram, Miranda R / Pauszek, Steven J / Hartwig, Ethan J / Smoliga, George R / Obanda, Vincent / Omondi, George P / VanderWaal, Kimberly / Arzt, Jonathan

Viruses

2022 Volume 14, Issue 5

Abstract: African buffalo are the natural reservoirs of the SAT serotypes of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) in sub-Saharan Africa. Most buffalo are exposed to multiple FMDV serotypes early in life, and a proportion of them become persistently infected ... ...

Abstract	African buffalo are the natural reservoirs of the SAT serotypes of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) in sub-Saharan Africa. Most buffalo are exposed to multiple FMDV serotypes early in life, and a proportion of them become persistently infected carriers. Understanding the genetic diversity and evolution of FMDV in carrier animals is critical to elucidate how FMDV persists in buffalo populations. In this study, we obtained oropharyngeal (OPF) fluid from naturally infected African buffalo, and characterized the genetic diversity of FMDV. Out of 54 FMDV-positive OPF, 5 were co-infected with SAT1 and SAT2 serotypes. From the five co-infected buffalo, we obtained eighty-nine plaque-purified isolates. Isolates obtained directly from OPF and plaque purification were sequenced using next-generation sequencing (NGS). Phylogenetic analyses of the sequences obtained from recombination-free protein-coding regions revealed a discrepancy in the topology of capsid proteins and non-structural proteins. Despite the high divergence in the capsid phylogeny between SAT1 and SAT2 serotypes, viruses from different serotypes that were collected from the same host had a high genetic similarity in non-structural protein-coding regions P2 and P3, suggesting interserotypic recombination. In two of the SAT1 and SAT2 co-infected buffalo identified at the first passage of viral isolation, the plaque-derived SAT2 genomes were distinctly grouped in two different genotypes. These genotypes were not initially detected with the NGS from the first passage (non-purified) virus isolation sample. In one animal with two SAT2 haplotypes, one plaque-derived chimeric sequence was found. These findings demonstrate within-host evolution through recombination and point mutation contributing to broad viral diversity in the wildlife reservoir. These mechanisms may be critical to FMDV persistence at the individual animal and population levels, and may contribute to the emergence of new viruses that have the ability to spill-over to livestock and other wildlife species.
MeSH term(s)	Animals ; Animals, Wild ; Buffaloes ; Capsid Proteins/genetics ; Coinfection/veterinary ; Foot-and-Mouth Disease/epidemiology ; Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus ; Kenya ; Phylogeny ; Serogroup
Chemical Substances	Capsid Proteins
Language	English
Publishing date	2022-04-25
Publishing country	Switzerland
Document type	Journal Article ; Research Support, U.S. Gov't, Non-P.H.S.
ZDB-ID	2516098-9
ISSN	1999-4915 ; 1999-4915
ISSN (online)	1999-4915
ISSN	1999-4915
DOI	10.3390/v14050897
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Article ; Online: Genome Sequences of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus SAT2 Strains Purified from Coinfected Cape Buffalo in Kenya.

Palinski, Rachel M / Sangula, Abraham / Gakuya, Francis / Bertram, Miranda R / Pauszek, Steven J / Hartwig, Ethan J / Smoliga, George R / Obanda, Vincent / Omondi, George P / VanderWaal, Kimberly / Arzt, Jonathan

Microbiology resource announcements

2022 Volume 11, Issue 10, Page(s) e0058522

Abstract: Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) SAT2 sequences were acquired from Cape buffalo in Kenya in 2016, from either primary passage ( ...

Abstract	Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) SAT2 sequences were acquired from Cape buffalo in Kenya in 2016, from either primary passage (
Language	English
Publishing date	2022-09-12
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article
ISSN	2576-098X
ISSN (online)	2576-098X
DOI	10.1128/mra.00585-22
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Article ; Online: Genome Sequences of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus SAT1 Strains Purified from Coinfected Cape Buffalo in Kenya.

Microbiology resource announcements

2022 Volume 11, Issue 10, Page(s) e0058422

Abstract: Nearly complete genomes of 49 novel foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) SAT1 strains acquired from oropharyngeal fluid samples from asymptomatic African Cape buffalo in Kenya in 2016 were determined. Sequences were from primary passage or plaque-purified ...

Abstract	Nearly complete genomes of 49 novel foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) SAT1 strains acquired from oropharyngeal fluid samples from asymptomatic African Cape buffalo in Kenya in 2016 were determined. Sequences were from primary passage or plaque-purified dually SAT1/SAT2-infected samples. These sequences are important for elucidation of the molecular epidemiology of persistent and subclinical FMDV infections.
Language	English
Publishing date	2022-09-12
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article
ISSN	2576-098X
ISSN (online)	2576-098X
DOI	10.1128/mra.00584-22
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Article: Metagenomic Investigation of Ticks From Kenyan Wildlife Reveals Diverse Microbial Pathogens and New Country Pathogen Records.

Ergunay, Koray / Mutinda, Mathew / Bourke, Brian / Justi, Silvia A / Caicedo-Quiroga, Laura / Kamau, Joseph / Mutura, Samson / Akunda, Irene Karagi / Cook, Elizabeth / Gakuya, Francis / Omondi, Patrick / Murray, Suzan / Zimmerman, Dawn / Linton, Yvonne-Marie

Frontiers in microbiology

2022 Volume 13, Page(s) 932224

Abstract	Focusing on the utility of ticks as xenosurveillance sentinels to expose circulating pathogens in Kenyan drylands, host-feeding ticks collected from wild ungulates [buffaloes, elephants, giraffes, hartebeest, impala, rhinoceros (black and white), zebras (Grévy's and plains)], carnivores (leopards, lions, spotted hyenas, wild dogs), as well as regular domestic and Boran cattle were screened for pathogens using metagenomics. A total of 75 host-feeding ticks [
Language	English
Publishing date	2022-07-01
Publishing country	Switzerland
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	2587354-4
ISSN	1664-302X
ISSN	1664-302X
DOI	10.3389/fmicb.2022.932224
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Article ; Online: Evidence of co-exposure with Brucella spp, Coxiella burnetii, and Rift Valley fever virus among various species of wildlife in Kenya.

Gakuya, Francis / Akoko, James / Wambua, Lillian / Nyamota, Richard / Ronoh, Bernard / Lekolool, Isaac / Mwatondo, Athman / Muturi, Mathew / Ouma, Collins / Nthiwa, Daniel / Middlebrook, Earl / Fair, Jeanne / Gachohi, John / Njenga, Kariuki / Bett, Bernard

PLoS neglected tropical diseases

2022 Volume 16, Issue 8, Page(s) e0010596

Abstract: Background: Co-infection, especially with pathogens of dissimilar genetic makeup, may result in a more devastating impact on the host. Investigations on co-infection with neglected zoonotic pathogens in wildlife are necessary to inform appropriate ... ...

Abstract	Background: Co-infection, especially with pathogens of dissimilar genetic makeup, may result in a more devastating impact on the host. Investigations on co-infection with neglected zoonotic pathogens in wildlife are necessary to inform appropriate prevention and control strategies to reduce disease burden in wildlife and the potential transmission of these pathogens between wildlife, livestock and humans. This study assessed co-exposure of various Kenyan wildflife species with Brucella spp, Coxiella burnetii and Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV). Methodology: A total of 363 sera from 16 different wildlife species, most of them (92.6%) herbivores, were analysed by Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for IgG antibodies against Brucella spp, C. burnetii and RVFV. Further, 280 of these were tested by PCR to identify Brucella species. Results: Of the 16 wildlife species tested, 15 (93.8%) were seropositive for at least one of the pathogens. Mean seropositivities were 18.9% (95% CI: 15.0-23.3) for RVFV, 13.7% (95% CI: 10.3-17.7) for Brucella spp and 9.1% (95% CI: 6.3-12.5) for C. burnetii. Buffaloes (n = 269) had higher seropositivity for Brucella spp. (17.1%, 95% CI: 13.0-21.7%) and RVFV (23.4%, 95% CI: 18.6-28.6%), while giraffes (n = 36) had the highest seropositivity for C. burnetii (44.4%, 95% CI: 27.9-61.9%). Importantly, 23 of the 93 (24.7%) animals positive for at least one pathogen were co-exposed, with 25.4% (18/71) of the positive buffaloes positive for brucellosis and RVFV. On molecular analysis, Brucella DNA was detected in 46 (19.5%, CI: 14.9-24.7) samples, with 4 (8.6%, 95% CI: 2.2-15.8) being identified as B. melitensis. The Fisher's Exact test indicated that seropositivity varied significantly within the different animal families, with Brucella (p = 0.013), C. burnetii (p = <0.001) and RVFV (p = 0.007). Location was also significantly associated (p = <0.001) with Brucella spp. and C. burnetii seropositivities. Conclusion: Of ~20% of Kenyan wildlife that are seropositive for Brucella spp, C. burnetii and RVFV, almost 25% indicate co-infections with the three pathogens, particularly with Brucella spp and RVFV.
MeSH term(s)	Animals ; Animals, Wild ; Brucella/genetics ; Buffaloes ; Coinfection/epidemiology ; Coinfection/veterinary ; Coxiella burnetii/genetics ; Humans ; Kenya/epidemiology ; Rift Valley Fever ; Rift Valley fever virus/genetics ; Seroepidemiologic Studies ; Zoonoses
Language	English
Publishing date	2022-08-08
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article ; Research Support, U.S. Gov't, Non-P.H.S.
ZDB-ID	2429704-5
ISSN	1935-2735 ; 1935-2735
ISSN (online)	1935-2735
ISSN	1935-2735
DOI	10.1371/journal.pntd.0010596
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