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Article ; Online: Asymmetric negative transfer effects of working memory training.

Ni, Nan / Gathercole, Susan E / Norris, Dennis / Saito, Satoru

2023 Volume 51, Issue 7, Page(s) 1654–1669

Abstract: Gathercole et al. (Journal of Memory and Language, 105, 19-42, 2019) presented a cognitive routine framework for explaining the underlying mechanisms of working memory (WM) training and transfer. This framework conceptualizes training-induced changes as ... ...

Abstract	Gathercole et al. (Journal of Memory and Language, 105, 19-42, 2019) presented a cognitive routine framework for explaining the underlying mechanisms of working memory (WM) training and transfer. This framework conceptualizes training-induced changes as the acquisition of novel cognitive routines similar to learning a new skill. We further infer that WM training might not always generate positive outcomes because previously acquired routines may affect subsequent task performance in various ways. Thus, the present study aimed to demonstrate the negative effects of WM training via two experiments. We conducted Experiment 1 online using a two-phase training paradigm with only three training sessions per phase and replicated the key findings of Gathercole and Norris (in prep.) that training on a backward circle span task (a spatial task) transferred negatively to subsequent training on a backward letter span task (a verbal task). We conducted Experiment 2 using a reversed task order design corresponding to Experiment 1. The results indicated that the transfer from backward letter training to backward circle training was not negative, but rather weakly positive, suggesting that the direction of the negative transfer effect is asymmetric. The present study therefore found that a negative transfer effect can indeed occur under certain WM training designs. The presence of this asymmetric effect indicates that backward circle and backward letter tasks require different optimal routines and that the locus of negative transfer might be the acquisition process of such optimal routines. Hence, the routines already established for backward circle might hinder the development of optimal routines for backward letter, but not vice versa.
MeSH term(s)	Humans ; Memory, Short-Term ; Transfer, Psychology ; Cognitive Training ; Learning ; Task Performance and Analysis
Language	English
Publishing date	2023-04-21
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article ; Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
ZDB-ID	185691-1
ISSN	1532-5946 ; 0090-502X
ISSN (online)	1532-5946
ISSN	0090-502X
DOI	10.3758/s13421-023-01412-8
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Article ; Online: Exploring Working Memory Capacity and Efficiency Processes to Understand Working Memory Training Outcomes in Primary School Children.

Tan, Alexandra S L / Lau, Regine C / Anderson, Peter J / Gathercole, Susan / Bellgrove, Mark A / Wiley, Joshua F / Spencer-Smith, Megan M

Journal of cognition

2024 Volume 7, Issue 1, Page(s) 23

Abstract: Despite the abundance of research evaluating working memory training outcomes in children, few studies have examined the underlying cognitive mechanisms. This study aimed to contribute understanding by exploring ... ...

Abstract	Despite the abundance of research evaluating working memory training outcomes in children, few studies have examined the underlying cognitive mechanisms. This study aimed to contribute understanding by exploring whether
Language	English
Publishing date	2024-02-08
Publishing country	England
Document type	Journal Article
ISSN	2514-4820
ISSN (online)	2514-4820
DOI	10.5334/joc.348
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Article ; Online: Commentary: Working memory training and ADHD - where does its potential lie? Reflections on Chacko et al. (2014).

Gathercole, Susan E

Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines

2014 Volume 55, Issue 3, Page(s) 256–257

Abstract: Chacko et al.'s investigation of the clinical utility of WM training to alleviate key symptoms of ADHD is timely and substantial, and marks a significant point in cognitive training research. Cogmed Working Memory Training (CWMT) involves intensive ... ...

Abstract	Chacko et al.'s investigation of the clinical utility of WM training to alleviate key symptoms of ADHD is timely and substantial, and marks a significant point in cognitive training research. Cogmed Working Memory Training (CWMT) involves intensive practice on multiple memory span tasks that increase in difficulty as performance improves with practice. Relative to a placebo version in which the span level of the memory tasks are kept at a low fixed level, Chacko et al. () found that CWMT boosted the performance of children with ADHD on short-term memory (STM) tasks similar to trained activities. Complex WM span measures sharing little overlap with the structure of training activities were not enhanced. Neither did active CWMT ameliorate classic symptoms of ADHD such as parent or teacher ratings of attentional problems, or direct measures of motor impulsivity and sustained attention. Reading, spelling, comprehension or mathematics scores similarly showed no response to training.
MeSH term(s)	Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity/therapy ; Cognitive Behavioral Therapy/methods ; Female ; Humans ; Male ; Memory, Short-Term/physiology
Language	English
Publishing date	2014-01-20
Publishing country	England
Document type	Journal Article ; Comment
ZDB-ID	218136-8
ISSN	1469-7610 ; 0021-9630 ; 0373-8086
ISSN (online)	1469-7610
ISSN	0021-9630 ; 0373-8086
DOI	10.1111/jcpp.12196
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Article ; Online: Working memory profiles of children with reading difficulties who are learning to read in Greek.

Masoura, Elvira / Gogou, Anastasia / Gathercole, Susan E

Dyslexia (Chichester, England)

2020 Volume 27, Issue 3, Page(s) 312–324

Abstract: This study investigated working memory skills in a small group of 13 nine-year-old Greek children facing reading difficulties and a group of 14 age matched typical Greek readers. The children were assessed on working memory tasks measuring separately the ...

Abstract	This study investigated working memory skills in a small group of 13 nine-year-old Greek children facing reading difficulties and a group of 14 age matched typical Greek readers. The children were assessed on working memory tasks measuring separately the four components of the working memory model of Baddeley and Hitch (1974) as revised by Baddeley (2000): the phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, episodic buffer and central executive. Both groups completed tests of accuracy of reading, speed of reading and text understanding. The children with reading difficulties performed significantly more poorly than typical readers on all aspects of working memory apart from visual-spatial short-term memory. These results indicate a similar verbal working memory impairment in Greek children with reading difficulties as in their English peers, despite the fact that they are learning to read a language with a transparent rather than an opaque orthography.
MeSH term(s)	Case-Control Studies ; Child ; Cognition ; Dyslexia ; Female ; Greece ; Humans ; Male ; Memory, Short-Term ; Reading
Language	English
Publishing date	2020-11-17
Publishing country	England
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	1501502-6
ISSN	1099-0909 ; 1076-9242
ISSN (online)	1099-0909
ISSN	1076-9242
DOI	10.1002/dys.1671
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Article ; Online: Annual Research Review: The transdiagnostic revolution in neurodevelopmental disorders.

Astle, Duncan E / Holmes, Joni / Kievit, Rogier / Gathercole, Susan E

Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines

2021 Volume 63, Issue 4, Page(s) 397–417

Abstract: Practitioners frequently use diagnostic criteria to identify children with neurodevelopmental disorders and to guide intervention decisions. These criteria also provide the organising framework for much of the research focussing on these disorders. Study ...

Abstract	Practitioners frequently use diagnostic criteria to identify children with neurodevelopmental disorders and to guide intervention decisions. These criteria also provide the organising framework for much of the research focussing on these disorders. Study design, recruitment, analysis and theory are largely built on the assumption that diagnostic criteria reflect an underlying reality. However, there is growing concern that this assumption may not be a valid and that an alternative transdiagnostic approach may better serve our understanding of this large heterogeneous population of young people. This review draws on important developments over the past decade that have set the stage for much-needed breakthroughs in understanding neurodevelopmental disorders. We evaluate contemporary approaches to study design and recruitment, review the use of data-driven methods to characterise cognition, behaviour and neurobiology, and consider what alternative transdiagnostic models could mean for children and families. This review concludes that an overreliance on ill-fitting diagnostic criteria is impeding progress towards identifying the barriers that children encounter, understanding underpinning mechanisms and finding the best route to supporting them.
MeSH term(s)	Adolescent ; Child ; Cognition ; Humans ; Neurodevelopmental Disorders/diagnosis
Language	English
Publishing date	2021-07-23
Publishing country	England
Document type	Journal Article ; Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't ; Review
ZDB-ID	218136-8
ISSN	1469-7610 ; 0021-9630 ; 0373-8086
ISSN (online)	1469-7610
ISSN	0021-9630 ; 0373-8086
DOI	10.1111/jcpp.13481
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Article: Working Memory Training for Children Using the Adaptive, Self-Select, and Stepwise Approaches to Setting the Difficulty Level of Training Activities: Protocol for a Randomized Controlled Trial.

Lau, Regine Cassandra / Anderson, Peter John / Wiley, Joshua F / Huang, Derek / Surjatin, Faisha / McIntosh, Paul / Gathercole, Susan / Spencer-Smith, Megan

JMIR research protocols

2023 Volume 12, Page(s) e47496

Abstract: Background: A common yet untested assumption of cognitive training in children is that activities should be adaptive, with difficulty adjusted to the individual's performance in order to maximize improvements on untrained tasks (known as transfer). ... ...

Abstract	Background: A common yet untested assumption of cognitive training in children is that activities should be adaptive, with difficulty adjusted to the individual's performance in order to maximize improvements on untrained tasks (known as transfer). Working memory training provides the ideal testbed to systematically examine this assumption as it is one of the most widely studied domains in the cognitive training literature, and is critical for children's learning, including following instructions and reasoning. Objective: This trial aimed to examine children's outcomes of working memory training using adaptive, self-select (child selects difficulty level), and stepwise (difficulty level increases incrementally) approaches to setting the difficulty of training activities compared to an active control condition immediately and 6-month postintervention. While the aim is exploratory, we hypothesized that children allocated to a working memory training condition would show greater improvements: (1) on near transfer measures compared to intermediate and far transfer measures and (2) immediately postintervention compared to 6-month postintervention. Methods: This double-blinded, active-controlled, parallel-group randomized trial aimed to recruit 128 children aged 7 to 11 years from 1 metropolitan primary school in Melbourne, Australia. Following baseline testing, children were randomized into 1 of 4 conditions: adaptive, self-select, or stepwise working memory training, or active control. An experimental intervention embedded in Minecraft was developed for teachers to deliver in class over 2 consecutive weeks (10 × 20-minute sessions). The working memory training comprised 2 training activities with processing demands similar to daily activities: backward span and following instructions. The control comprised creative activities. Pre- and postintervention, children completed a set of working memory tests (near and intermediate transfer) and the Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices (far transfer) to determine training outcomes, as well as motivation questionnaires to determine if motivations toward learning and the intervention were similar across conditions. Caregivers completed the ADHD-Rating Scale-5 to measure their child's attention (far transfer). Statistical analysis will include traditional null hypothesis significance testing and Bayesian methods to quantify evidence for both the null and alternative hypotheses. Results: Data collection concluded in December 2022. Data are currently being processed and analyzed. Conclusions: This trial will determine whether the adaptive approach to setting the difficulty of training activities maximizes cognitive training outcomes for children. This trial has several strengths: it adopts best practices for cognitive training studies (design, methods, and analysis plan); uses a range of measures to detect discrete levels of transfer; has a 6-month postintervention assessment; is appropriately powered; and uses an experimental working memory training intervention based on our current understanding of the cognitive mechanisms of training. Findings will inform future research and design of cognitive training interventions and highlight the value of the evidence-based principles of cognitive training. Trial registration: Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry, ACTRN12621000990820; https://www.anzctr.org.au/ACTRN12621000990820.aspx. International registered report identifier (irrid): DERR1-10.2196/47496.
Language	English
Publishing date	2023-09-19
Publishing country	Canada
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	2719222-2
ISSN	1929-0748
ISSN	1929-0748
DOI	10.2196/47496
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Article ; Online: Protocol for a transdiagnostic study of children with problems of attention, learning and memory (CALM).

Holmes, Joni / Bryant, Annie / Gathercole, Susan Elizabeth

BMC pediatrics

2019 Volume 19, Issue 1, Page(s) 10

Abstract: Background: A substantial proportion of the school-age population experience cognitive-related learning difficulties. Not all children who struggle at school receive a diagnosis, yet their problems are sufficient to warrant additional support. ... ...

Abstract	Background: A substantial proportion of the school-age population experience cognitive-related learning difficulties. Not all children who struggle at school receive a diagnosis, yet their problems are sufficient to warrant additional support. Understanding the causes of learning difficulties is the key to developing effective prevention and intervention strategies for struggling learners. The aim of this project is to apply a transdiagnostic approach to children with cognitive developmental difficulties related to learning to discover the underpinning mechanisms of learning problems. Methods: A cohort of 1000 children aged 5 to 18 years is being recruited. The sample consists of 800 children with problems in attention, learning and / memory, as identified by a health or educational professional, and 200 typically-developing children recruited from the same schools as those with difficulties. All children are completing assessments of cognition, including tests of phonological processing, short-term and working memory, attention, executive function and processing speed. Their parents/ carers are completing questionnaires about the child's family history, communication skills, mental health and behaviour. Children are invited for an optional MRI brain scan and are asked to provide an optional DNA sample (saliva). Hypothesis-free data-driven methods will be used to identify the cognitive, behavioural and neural dimensions of learning difficulties. Machine-learning approaches will be used to map the multi-dimensional space of the cognitive, neural and behavioural measures to identify clusters of children with shared profiles. Finally, group comparisons will be used to test theories of development and disorder. Discussion: Our multi-systems approach to identifying the causes of learning difficulties in a heterogeneous sample of struggling learners provides a novel way to enhance our understanding of the common and complex needs of the majority of children who struggle at school. Our broad recruitment criteria targeting all children with cognitive learning problems, irrespective of diagnoses and comorbidities, are novel and make our sample unique. Our dataset will also provide a valuable resource of genetic, imaging and cognitive developmental data for the scientific community.
MeSH term(s)	Adolescent ; Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity/complications ; Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity/diagnosis ; Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity/etiology ; Child ; Clinical Protocols ; Female ; Humans ; Learning Disabilities/complications ; Learning Disabilities/diagnosis ; Learning Disabilities/etiology ; Male ; Memory Disorders/complications ; Memory Disorders/diagnosis ; Memory Disorders/etiology
Language	English
Publishing date	2019-01-08
Publishing country	England
Document type	Journal Article ; Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
ZDB-ID	2041342-7
ISSN	1471-2431 ; 1471-2431
ISSN (online)	1471-2431
ISSN	1471-2431
DOI	10.1186/s12887-018-1385-3
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Article ; Online: Can short-term memory be trained?

Norris, Dennis G / Hall, Jane / Gathercole, Susan E

Memory & cognition

2019 Volume 47, Issue 5, Page(s) 1012–1023

Abstract: Is the capacity of short-term memory fixed, or does it improve with practice? It is already known that training on complex working memory tasks is more likely to transfer to untrained tasks with similar properties, but this approach has not been extended ...

Abstract	Is the capacity of short-term memory fixed, or does it improve with practice? It is already known that training on complex working memory tasks is more likely to transfer to untrained tasks with similar properties, but this approach has not been extended to the more basic short-term memory system responsible for verbal serial recall. Here we investigated this with adaptive training algorithms widely applied in working memory training. Serial recall of visually presented digits was found to improve over the course of 20 training sessions, but this improvement did not extend to recall of either spoken digits or visually presented letters. In contrast, training on a nonserial visual short-term memory color change detection task did transfer to a line orientation change detection task. We suggest that training only generates substantial transfer when the unfamiliar demands of the training activities require the development of novel routines that can then be applied to untrained versions of the same paradigm (Gathercole, Dunning, Holmes, & Norris, 2019). In contrast, serial recall of digits is fully supported by the existing verbal short-term memory system and does not require the development of new routines.
MeSH term(s)	Adolescent ; Adult ; Color Perception/physiology ; Humans ; Memory, Short-Term/physiology ; Mental Recall/physiology ; Pattern Recognition, Visual/physiology ; Practice, Psychological ; Serial Learning/physiology ; Speech Perception/physiology ; Transfer, Psychology/physiology ; Young Adult
Language	English
Publishing date	2019-02-23
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	185691-1
ISSN	1532-5946 ; 0090-502X
ISSN (online)	1532-5946
ISSN	0090-502X
DOI	10.3758/s13421-019-00901-z
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Article ; Online: How do we perform backward serial recall?

Norris, Dennis / Hall, Jane / Gathercole, Susan E

Memory & cognition

2019 Volume 47, Issue 3, Page(s) 519–543

Abstract: Following Conrad (1965, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 4, 161-169) it is often assumed that backward verbal serial recall is performed by repeated forward scans through the list and then recalling the last remaining item. Direct evidence ...

Abstract	Following Conrad (1965, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 4, 161-169) it is often assumed that backward verbal serial recall is performed by repeated forward scans through the list and then recalling the last remaining item. Direct evidence for this peel-off strategy is relatively weak, and there has to date been no examination of its potential role in the recall of spatial sequences. To examine the role of this strategy in both verbal and spatial domains, two experiments examined response output times for forward and backward recall. For spatial span, the pattern of timing was the same in both directions. For digit span, backward recall was considerably slower. This was true whether responses were made by means of manual selection on a keyboard display (Experiment 1) or were spoken (Experiment 2a). Only two of 24 participants showed signs of using a peel-off strategy in spoken backward recall. Peel-off was not a dominant strategy in backward digit recall and there was no indication that it was ever used for spatial stimuli. Most participants reported using a combination of different strategies. In Experiment 2b, four further participants were directly instructed to use a peel-off strategy. The pattern of response times for three of these individuals was similar to the two participants from Experiment 2a previously identified as using peel-off. We conclude that backward recall can be performed using many strategies, but that the peel-off is rarely used spontaneously.
MeSH term(s)	Adolescent ; Adult ; Female ; Humans ; Male ; Memory, Short-Term/physiology ; Mental Recall/physiology ; Pattern Recognition, Visual/physiology ; Serial Learning/physiology ; Space Perception/physiology ; Young Adult
Language	English
Publishing date	2019-02-15
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	185691-1
ISSN	1532-5946 ; 0090-502X
ISSN (online)	1532-5946
ISSN	0090-502X
DOI	10.3758/s13421-018-0889-2
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Article ; Online: The time course of updating in running span.

Kaur, Shraddha / Norris, Dennis G / Gathercole, Susan E

Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition

2019 Volume 46, Issue 12, Page(s) 2397–2409

Abstract: Running span can be performed by either passively listening to memory items or actively updating the target set. Previous research suggests that the active updating process is demanding and time consuming and is favored at slow rates of presentation ... ...

Abstract	Running span can be performed by either passively listening to memory items or actively updating the target set. Previous research suggests that the active updating process is demanding and time consuming and is favored at slow rates of presentation while the passive strategy is employed at fast rates. Two experiments examined the time course of recruitment of resources during task performance and its sensitivity to presentation rate. In Experiment 1, participants performed 1 of 3 serial recall tasks: running span, simple span, and modified span. The tasks were completed at the same time as a choice reaction time (RT; CRT) task and the RTs were used to index the resource demands of the memory task. Running span generated higher RT costs than simple span. The costs were present only for positions at and beyond the point in the sequence when the target memory set was changed, indicating a shift to a more cognitively demanding mode of updating. At these positions there was a generalized increase in RT costs that peaked 1,000 ms following item presentation. In Experiment 2 the resource demands of running span varied with presentation rate and a peak demand at 1,000 ms was again evident, but only with a slow presentation rate. In conjunction with strategy reports, these data establish that the process of active updating in running span is slow and cognitively demanding, making it difficult to use when presentation rates are fast. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).
MeSH term(s)	Cognition ; Female ; Humans ; Male ; Memory, Short-Term ; Mental Recall ; Reaction Time ; Young Adult
Language	English
Publishing date	2019-12-19
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	627313-0
ISSN	1939-1285 ; 0278-7393
ISSN (online)	1939-1285
ISSN	0278-7393
DOI	10.1037/xlm0000800
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