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  1. Article ; Online: Discounting and the portfolio of desires.

    Killeen, Peter R

    Psychological review

    2023  Volume 130, Issue 5, Page(s) 1310–1325

    Abstract: The additive utility theory of discounting is extended to probability and commodity discounting. Because the utility of a good and the disutility of its delay combine additively, increases in the utility of a good offset the disutility of its delay: ... ...

    Abstract The additive utility theory of discounting is extended to probability and commodity discounting. Because the utility of a good and the disutility of its delay combine additively, increases in the utility of a good offset the disutility of its delay: Increasing the former slows the apparent discount even with the latter, time-disutility, remaining invariant, giving the magnitude effect. Conjoint measurement showed the subjective value of money to be a logarithmic function of its amount, and subjective probability-the probability weighting function-to be Prelec's (1998). This general theory of discounting (GTD) explains why large amounts are probability discounted more quickly, giving the negative magnitude effect. Whatever enhances the value of a delayed asset, such as its ability to satisfy diverse desires, offsets its delay and reduces discounting. Money's liquidity permits optimization of the portfolio of desired goods, providing added value that accounts for its shallow temporal discount gradient. GTD predicts diversification effects for delay but none for probability discounting. Operations such as episodic future thinking that increase the larder of potential expenditures-the portfolio of desirable goods-increase the value of the asset, flattening the discount gradient. States that decrease the larder, such as stress, depression, and overweening focus on a single substance like a drug, constrict the portfolio, decreasing its utility and thereby steepening the gradient. GTD provides a unified account of delay, probability, and cross-commodity discounting. It explains the effects of motivational states, dispositions, and cognitive manipulations on discount gradients. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).
    Language English
    Publishing date 2023-09-14
    Publishing country United States
    Document type Journal Article
    ZDB-ID 209907-x
    ISSN 1939-1471 ; 0033-295X
    ISSN (online) 1939-1471
    ISSN 0033-295X
    DOI 10.1037/rev0000447
    Database MEDical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System OnLINE

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  2. Article ; Online: Theory of reinforcement schedules.

    Killeen, Peter R

    Journal of the experimental analysis of behavior

    2023  Volume 120, Issue 3, Page(s) 289–319

    Abstract: The three principles of reinforcement are (1) events such as incentives and reinforcers increase the activity of an organism; (2) that activity is bounded by competition from other responses; and (3) animals approach incentives and their signs, guided by ...

    Abstract The three principles of reinforcement are (1) events such as incentives and reinforcers increase the activity of an organism; (2) that activity is bounded by competition from other responses; and (3) animals approach incentives and their signs, guided by their temporal and physical conditions, together called the "contingencies of reinforcement." Mathematical models of each of these principles comprised mathematical principles of reinforcement (MPR; Killeen, 1994). Over the ensuing decades, MPR was extended to new experimental contexts. This article reviews the basic theory and its extensions to satiation, warm-up, extinction, sign tracking, pausing, and sequential control in progressive-ratio and multiple schedules. In the latter cases, a single equation balancing target and competing responses governs behavioral contrast and behavioral momentum. Momentum is intrinsic in the fundamental equations, as behavior unspools more slowly from highly aroused responses conditioned by higher rates of incitement than it does from responses from leaner contexts. Habits are responses that have accrued substantial behavioral momentum. Operant responses, being predictors of reinforcement, are approached by making them: The sight and feel of a paw on a lever is approached by placing paw on lever, as attempted for any sign of reinforcement. Behavior in concurrent schedules is governed by approach to momentarily richer patches (melioration). Applications of MPR in behavioral pharmacology and delay discounting are noted.
    MeSH term(s) Animals ; Reinforcement Schedule ; Conditioning, Operant ; Reinforcement, Psychology ; Motivation ; Models, Theoretical
    Language English
    Publishing date 2023-09-14
    Publishing country United States
    Document type Review ; Journal Article
    ZDB-ID 219405-3
    ISSN 1938-3711 ; 0022-5002
    ISSN (online) 1938-3711
    ISSN 0022-5002
    DOI 10.1002/jeab.880
    Database MEDical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System OnLINE

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  3. Article ; Online: From data through discount rates to the area under the curve.

    Killeen, Peter R

    Journal of the experimental analysis of behavior

    2023  Volume 121, Issue 2, Page(s) 259–265

    Abstract: The rate of discounting future goods is a crucial factor in intertemporal trade-offs, upon which depends not only individual well-being but also that of our planet: How much privation now for a temperate future for our grandchildren? What is the best way ...

    Abstract The rate of discounting future goods is a crucial factor in intertemporal trade-offs, upon which depends not only individual well-being but also that of our planet: How much privation now for a temperate future for our grandchildren? What is the best way to measure how the value of future goods decreases with its delay? The most accurate discount functions involve several covarying parameters, making interpretation equivocal. A universal and robust measure is the area under the discount curve, the AuC. The AuC of a hyperbolic discount function is a logarithmic function of the discount rate, k. The same integral also approximates the area under a hyperboloid function. A simple technique converts each datum into estimates of the discount rate, eliminating rogue data points in the process. These trimmed estimates are converted into areas and tested against data, where they succeed at predicting the AuC and its relation to log(k).
    Language English
    Publishing date 2023-11-20
    Publishing country United States
    Document type Journal Article
    ZDB-ID 219405-3
    ISSN 1938-3711 ; 0022-5002
    ISSN (online) 1938-3711
    ISSN 0022-5002
    DOI 10.1002/jeab.888
    Database MEDical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System OnLINE

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  4. Article ; Online: Variations on a theme by Rachlin: Probability discounting.

    Killeen, Peter R

    Journal of the experimental analysis of behavior

    2022  Volume 119, Issue 1, Page(s) 140–155

    Abstract: Rachlin and colleagues laid the groundwork for treating the discounting of probabilistic goods as a variant of the discounting of delayed goods. This approach was seminal for a large body of subsequent research. The present paper finds the original ... ...

    Abstract Rachlin and colleagues laid the groundwork for treating the discounting of probabilistic goods as a variant of the discounting of delayed goods. This approach was seminal for a large body of subsequent research. The present paper finds the original development problematic: In converting probability to delay, the authors incorrectly dropped trial duration. The subsumption of probability by delay is also empirically questionable, as those are different functions of variables such as magnitude of outcome and commodity versus money. A variant of Rachlin's theme treats human discounting studies as psychophysical matching experiments, in which one compound stimulus is adjusted to equal another. It is assumed that a function of amount (its utility) is multiplied by a function of probability (its weight). Conjoint measurement establishes the nature of these functions, yielding a logarithmic transform on amount, and a Prelec function on probability. This model provides a good and parsimonious account of probability discounting in diverse data sets. Variant representations of the data are explored. By inserting the probabilistically discounted utility into the additive utility theory of delay discounting, a general theory of probabilistic intertemporal choice is achieved.
    MeSH term(s) Humans ; Probability ; Data Collection ; Delay Discounting ; Reward ; Choice Behavior
    Language English
    Publishing date 2022-12-19
    Publishing country United States
    Document type Journal Article
    ZDB-ID 219405-3
    ISSN 1938-3711 ; 0022-5002
    ISSN (online) 1938-3711
    ISSN 0022-5002
    DOI 10.1002/jeab.817
    Database MEDical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System OnLINE

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  5. Article ; Online: Moles and Molecules.

    Killeen, Peter R

    Journal of the experimental analysis of behavior

    2021  Volume 115, Issue 2, Page(s) 584–595

    MeSH term(s) Animals ; Moles
    Language English
    Publishing date 2021-01-11
    Publishing country United States
    Document type Journal Article ; Comment
    ZDB-ID 219405-3
    ISSN 1938-3711 ; 0022-5002
    ISSN (online) 1938-3711
    ISSN 0022-5002
    DOI 10.1002/jeab.667
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  6. Article ; Online: Addendum to Killeen's (2019) Bidding for Delayed Rewards.

    Killeen, Peter R

    Journal of the experimental analysis of behavior

    2020  Volume 113, Issue 3, Page(s) 680–689

    Abstract: Killeen (2019) portrayed an intimate relation between diverse economic indices, in particular compensation functions, discount functions, and demand functions. The article bemused some experts, however, by its counterintuitive prediction of an increase ... ...

    Abstract Killeen (2019) portrayed an intimate relation between diverse economic indices, in particular compensation functions, discount functions, and demand functions. The article bemused some experts, however, by its counterintuitive prediction of an increase in the amount bid as the delay increased. Furthermore, the article failed to provide an explicit treatment of the small-soon versus large-late choice paradigm, to cite several papers that provided precedent for the current work, and to demonstrate the adequacy of his expenditure functions for data on purchasing decisions. These shortcomings are remedied in the current note, and some additional extensions offered.
    MeSH term(s) Animals ; Choice Behavior ; Delay Discounting ; Humans ; Models, Psychological ; Rats ; Reward
    Language English
    Publishing date 2020-04-30
    Publishing country United States
    Document type Journal Article
    ZDB-ID 219405-3
    ISSN 1938-3711 ; 0022-5002
    ISSN (online) 1938-3711
    ISSN 0022-5002
    DOI 10.1002/jeab.600
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  7. Article ; Online: Models of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder.

    Killeen, Peter R

    Behavioural processes

    2019  Volume 162, Page(s) 205–214

    Abstract: One of the most notable aspects of the behavior of individuals with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is increased variability in many aspects of their behavior, including response times and attentional focus. Among the many theories of ... ...

    Abstract One of the most notable aspects of the behavior of individuals with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is increased variability in many aspects of their behavior, including response times and attentional focus. Among the many theories of ADHD is one that identifies its material cause as phasic malnutrition of the neurons required to maintain constancy of performance. Of the diverse predictions issuing from this theory, one concerns ubiquitous data: response times and their variance in decision tasks. This paper reviews that behavioral neuroenergetics theory and model, shows how they predict representative data, and suggests their relevance to researchers studying animal models of ADHD.
    MeSH term(s) Animals ; Astrocytes/metabolism ; Attention ; Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity/metabolism ; Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity/psychology ; Decision Making ; Disease Models, Animal ; Energy Metabolism ; Humans ; Lactic Acid/metabolism ; Models, Psychological ; Neurons/metabolism ; Reaction Time
    Chemical Substances Lactic Acid (33X04XA5AT)
    Language English
    Publishing date 2019-01-21
    Publishing country Netherlands
    Document type Journal Article ; Review
    ZDB-ID 196999-7
    ISSN 1872-8308 ; 0376-6357
    ISSN (online) 1872-8308
    ISSN 0376-6357
    DOI 10.1016/j.beproc.2019.01.001
    Database MEDical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System OnLINE

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  8. Article ; Online: Inventing the wheel.

    Killeen, Peter R

    Journal of the experimental analysis of behavior

    2019  Volume 112, Issue 1, Page(s) 18–20

    MeSH term(s) Humans ; Motivation
    Language English
    Publishing date 2019-06-04
    Publishing country United States
    Document type Journal Article ; Comment
    ZDB-ID 219405-3
    ISSN 1938-3711 ; 0022-5002
    ISSN (online) 1938-3711
    ISSN 0022-5002
    DOI 10.1002/jeab.529
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  9. Article ; Online: Timberlake's theories dissolve anomalies.

    Killeen, Peter R

    Behavioural processes

    2019  Volume 166, Page(s) 103894

    Abstract: Two of Timberlake's major contributions, amongst numerous other good notes, are Behavior Regulation Theory (BRT), and Behavior Systems Theory (BST). BRT was a refinement of the Premack Principle. What both got right was that reinforcers are responses, ... ...

    Abstract Two of Timberlake's major contributions, amongst numerous other good notes, are Behavior Regulation Theory (BRT), and Behavior Systems Theory (BST). BRT was a refinement of the Premack Principle. What both got right was that reinforcers are responses, not stimuli. For BRT, they were responses that were occurring below the rate at which they otherwise would given free access to them. BST was a larger ethological framework for our science of behavior. We have always needed it, as it opens an important window on our field. With that window closed, it is easy to stumble over a half-dozen anomalies in the dark, ones that we say humph to, scratch our heads, and then move on. When illuminated by BST, however, such anomalies become keys to a deeper understanding of our subject. This paper reviews numerous anomalies that make sense within the joint framework of BST and BRT, and Dickinson's Dual-Process theory of learned behavior. No longer anomalous in that context, all that is now left to do is test the validity and productivity of this general framework for those many strange cases.
    MeSH term(s) Choice Behavior ; Humans ; Psychological Theory ; Reinforcement (Psychology)
    Language English
    Publishing date 2019-07-03
    Publishing country Netherlands
    Document type Journal Article ; Review
    ZDB-ID 196999-7
    ISSN 1872-8308 ; 0376-6357
    ISSN (online) 1872-8308
    ISSN 0376-6357
    DOI 10.1016/j.beproc.2019.103894
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  10. Article ; Online: Bidding for delayed rewards: Accumulation as delay discounting, delay discounting as regulation, demand functions as corollary.

    Killeen, Peter R

    Journal of the experimental analysis of behavior

    2019  Volume 112, Issue 2, Page(s) 111–127

    Abstract: In the accumulation paradigm animals press one manipulandum to accumulate pellets or seconds of access to food, and then press another manipulandum, or run some distance, to collect it. The accumulation may be interpreted as delay discounting, with the ... ...

    Abstract In the accumulation paradigm animals press one manipulandum to accumulate pellets or seconds of access to food, and then press another manipulandum, or run some distance, to collect it. The accumulation may be interpreted as delay discounting, with the animals adjusting the distal amount to compensate for its distance or delay. The amount accumulated before being collected is a linear function of the distance or time that the experimental paradigm stipulates for collecting it. That linear function follows from the Unit-Price/Unit-Amount axiom. The inverse of the linear compensation functions gives a delay-discount hyperbola. The advantages of the accumulation paradigm and analytic framework for delay discounting studies are noted. Compensation functions are then derived from a behavioral regulation model, which generalizes them to contexts where the individual's budget for response cost becomes over-taxed. In turn, such compensation/regulation models lead directly to representative demand functions. In sum, regulation models provide a theoretical grounding for demand functions, compensation functions, and delay discounting hyperbolas. The parameter that links them is the unit amount k, the slope of the compensation function and of the discount function, the setpoint for consumption in a regulation model, and the ideal quantity consumed at minimal price in a demand analysis.
    MeSH term(s) Animals ; Conditioning, Operant ; Delay Discounting ; Models, Psychological ; Rats ; Reward ; Time Factors
    Language English
    Publishing date 2019-10-02
    Publishing country United States
    Document type Journal Article ; Review
    ZDB-ID 219405-3
    ISSN 1938-3711 ; 0022-5002
    ISSN (online) 1938-3711
    ISSN 0022-5002
    DOI 10.1002/jeab.545
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