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Article ; Online: Humans do not avoid reactively implementing cognitive control.

Bustos, Bettina / Colvett, Jackson S / Bugg, Julie M / Kool, Wouter

Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance

2024

Abstract: The ability to exert cognitive control allows us to achieve goals in the face of distraction and competing actions. However, control is costly-people generally aim to minimize its demands. Because control takes many forms, it is important to understand ... ...

Abstract	The ability to exert cognitive control allows us to achieve goals in the face of distraction and competing actions. However, control is costly-people generally aim to minimize its demands. Because control takes many forms, it is important to understand whether such costs apply universally. Specifically, reactive control, which is recruited in response to stimulus or contextual features, is theorized to be deployed automatically, and not depend on attentional resources. Here, we investigated whether people avoided implementing reactive control in three experiments. In all, participants performed a Stroop task in which certain items were mostly incongruent (MI), that is, associated with a high likelihood of conflict (triggering a focused control setting). Other items were mostly congruent, that is, associated with a low likelihood of conflict (triggering a relaxed control setting). Experiment 1 demonstrated that these control settings transfer to a subsequent unbiased transfer phase. In Experiments 2-3, we used a demand selection task to investigate whether people would avoid choice options that yielded items that were previously MI. In all, participants continued to retrieve focused control settings for previously MI items, but they did not avoid them in the demand selection task. Critically, we only found demand avoidance when there was an objective difference in demand between options. These findings are consistent with the idea that implementing reactive control does not register as costly. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).
Language	English
Publishing date	2024-04-11
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	189734-2
ISSN	1939-1277 ; 0096-1523
ISSN (online)	1939-1277
ISSN	0096-1523
DOI	10.1037/xhp0001207
Database	MEDical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System OnLINE

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Article ; Online: Need for cognition moderates the relief of avoiding cognitive effort.

Gheza, Davide / Kool, Wouter / Pourtois, Gilles

PloS one

2023 Volume 18, Issue 11, Page(s) e0287954

Abstract: When making decisions, humans aim to maximize rewards while minimizing costs. The exertion of mental or physical effort has been proposed to be one those costs, translating into avoidance of behaviors carrying effort demands. This motivational framework ... ...

Abstract	When making decisions, humans aim to maximize rewards while minimizing costs. The exertion of mental or physical effort has been proposed to be one those costs, translating into avoidance of behaviors carrying effort demands. This motivational framework also predicts that people should experience positive affect when anticipating demand that is subsequently avoided (i.e., a "relief effect"), but evidence for this prediction is scarce. Here, we follow up on a previous study [1] that provided some initial evidence that people more positively evaluated outcomes if it meant they could avoid performing an additional demanding task. However, the results from this study did not provide conclusive evidence that this effect was driven by effort avoidance. Here, we report two experiments that are able to do this. Participants performed a gambling task, and if they did not receive reward they would have to perform an orthogonal effort task. Prior to the gamble, a cue indicated whether this effort task would be easy or hard. We probed hedonic responses to the reward-related feedback, as well as after the subsequent effort task feedback. Participants reported lower hedonic responses for no-reward outcomes when high vs. low effort was anticipated (and later exerted). They also reported higher hedonic responses for reward outcomes when high vs. low effort was anticipated (and avoided). Importantly, this relief effect was smaller in participants with high need for cognition. These results suggest that avoidance of high effort tasks is rewarding, but that the size off this effect depends on the individual disposition to engage with and expend cognitive effort. They also raise the important question of whether this disposition alters the cost of effort per se, or rather offset this cost during cost-benefit analyses.
MeSH term(s)	Humans ; Cognition/physiology ; Decision Making/physiology ; Motivation ; Personality ; Reward
Language	English
Publishing date	2023-11-16
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	2267670-3
ISSN	1932-6203 ; 1932-6203
ISSN (online)	1932-6203
ISSN	1932-6203
DOI	10.1371/journal.pone.0287954
Database	MEDical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System OnLINE

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Article ; Online: The construction and use of cognitive maps in model-based control.

Karagoz, Ata B / Reagh, Zachariah M / Kool, Wouter

Journal of experimental psychology. General

2023 Volume 153, Issue 2, Page(s) 372–385

Abstract: When making decisions, we sometimes rely on habit and at other times plan toward goals. Planning requires the construction and use of an internal representation of the environment, a cognitive map. How are these maps constructed, and how do they guide ... ...

Abstract	When making decisions, we sometimes rely on habit and at other times plan toward goals. Planning requires the construction and use of an internal representation of the environment, a cognitive map. How are these maps constructed, and how do they guide goal-directed decisions? We coupled a sequential decision-making task with a behavioral representational similarity analysis approach to examine how relationships between choice options change when people build a cognitive map of the task structure. We found that participants who encoded stronger higher-order relationships among choice options showed increased planning and better performance. These higher-order relationships were more strongly encoded among objects encountered in high-reward contexts, indicating a role for motivation during cognitive map construction. In contrast, lower-order relationships such as simple visual co-occurrence of objects did not predict goal-directed planning. These results show that the construction of cognitive maps is an active process, with motivation dictating the degree to which higher-order relationships are encoded and used for planning. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).
MeSH term(s)	Humans ; Motivation ; Reward ; Cognition
Language	English
Publishing date	2023-12-07
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	189732-9
ISSN	1939-2222 ; 0096-3445
ISSN (online)	1939-2222
ISSN	0096-3445
DOI	10.1037/xge0001491
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Article: Evidence for shallow cognitive maps in schizophrenia.

Karagoz, Ata B / Moran, Erin K / Barch, Deanna M / Kool, Wouter / Reagh, Zachariah M

bioRxiv : the preprint server for biology

2024

Abstract: Individuals with schizophrenia can have marked deficits in goal-directed decision making. Prominent theories differ in whether schizophrenia (SZ) affects the ability to exert cognitive control, or the motivation to exert control. An alternative ... ...

Abstract	Individuals with schizophrenia can have marked deficits in goal-directed decision making. Prominent theories differ in whether schizophrenia (SZ) affects the ability to exert cognitive control, or the motivation to exert control. An alternative explanation is that schizophrenia negatively impacts the formation of cognitive maps, the internal representations of the way the world is structured, necessary for the formation of effective action plans. That is, deficits in decision-making could also arise when goal-directed control and motivation are intact, but used to plan over ill-formed maps. Here, we test the hypothesis that individuals with SZ are impaired in the construction of cognitive maps. We combine a behavioral representational similarity analysis technique with a sequential decision-making task. This enables us to examine how relationships between choice options change when individuals with SZ and healthy age-matched controls build a cognitive map of the task structure. Our results indicate that SZ affects how people represent the structure of the task, focusing more on simpler visual features and less on abstract, higher-order, planning-relevant features. At the same time, we find that SZ were able to display similar performance on this task compared to controls, emphasizing the need for a distinction between cognitive map formation and changes in goal-directed control in understanding cognitive deficits in schizophrenia.
Language	English
Publishing date	2024-02-28
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Preprint
DOI	10.1101/2024.02.26.582214
Database	MEDical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System OnLINE

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Book ; Online: Rudolph Agricola: Six Lives and Erasmus's Testimonies

Kool, Wouter / Vermeulen, Corinna / Money, David / Akkerman, Fokke / Haskell, Yasmin / Waszink, Jan

2012

Abstract: Rudolph Agricola: Six Lives and Erasmus's Testimonies The Frisian humanist Rudolph Agricola (1443-1485) is rightly famous for single-handedly bringing the Italian Renaissance to the North. Owing to his fascinating personality and many talents, he ... ...

Abstract	Rudolph Agricola: Six Lives and Erasmus's Testimonies The Frisian humanist Rudolph Agricola (1443-1485) is rightly famous for single-handedly bringing the Italian Renaissance to the North. Owing to his fascinating personality and many talents, he attracted the love and admiration of his contemporaries and the following generations. As a result, six biographies on Agricola have been preserved. The authors of these lives drew their materials from different sources and wrote their texts independently from each other. Differing vastly in rhetorical aims and methods, they provide us with a vivid image of cultural and intellectual life in the 15th century. Erasmus praised Agricolas work throughout his writings. No less than fifty testimonies from Erasmus and his correspondents are presented here. This edition of sources supplements the volume of Agricolas letters (BLN, 2002) and is preceded by an expert survey of all biographical information now at our disposal. Thus it fills a gap in our knowledge of a great man of letters, while correcting a number of persistent misconceptions (concerning the year of Agricolas birth, for instance)
Keywords	History (General)
Size	1 electronic resource (264 p.)
Publisher	Koninklijke van Gorcum
Document type	Book ; Online
Note	English ; Open Access
HBZ-ID	HT020087773
ISBN	9789023250722 ; 9023250729
Database	ZB MED Catalogue: Medicine, Health, Nutrition, Environment, Agriculture

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Article ; Online: Computational and behavioral markers of model-based decision making in childhood.

Smid, Claire R / Kool, Wouter / Hauser, Tobias U / Steinbeis, Nikolaus

Developmental science

2022 Volume 26, Issue 2, Page(s) e13295

Abstract: Human decision-making is underpinned by distinct systems that differ in flexibility and associated cognitive cost. A widely accepted dichotomy distinguishes between a cheap but rigid model-free system and a flexible but costly model-based system. ... ...

Abstract	Human decision-making is underpinned by distinct systems that differ in flexibility and associated cognitive cost. A widely accepted dichotomy distinguishes between a cheap but rigid model-free system and a flexible but costly model-based system. Typically, humans use a hybrid of both types of decision-making depending on environmental demands. However, children's use of a model-based system during decision-making has not yet been shown. While prior developmental work has identified simple building blocks of model-based reasoning in young children (1-4 years old), there has been little evidence of this complex cognitive system influencing behavior before adolescence. Here, by using a modified task to make engagement in cognitively costly strategies more rewarding, we show that children aged 5-11-years (N = 85), including the youngest children, displayed multiple indicators of model-based decision making, and that the degree of its use increased throughout childhood. Unlike adults (N = 24), however, children did not display adaptive arbitration between model-free and model-based decision-making. Our results demonstrate that throughout childhood, children can engage in highly sophisticated and costly decision-making strategies. However, the flexible arbitration between decision-making strategies might be a critically late-developing component in human development.
MeSH term(s)	Adult ; Adolescent ; Child ; Humans ; Child, Preschool ; Infant ; Decision Making ; Reward ; Problem Solving
Language	English
Publishing date	2022-06-23
Publishing country	England
Document type	Journal Article ; Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
ZDB-ID	2023952-X
ISSN	1467-7687 ; 1363-755X
ISSN (online)	1467-7687
ISSN	1363-755X
DOI	10.1111/desc.13295
Database	MEDical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System OnLINE

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Article ; Online: A Review of the Gumbel-max Trick and its Extensions for Discrete Stochasticity in Machine Learning.

Huijben, Iris A M / Kool, Wouter / Paulus, Max B / van Sloun, Ruud J G

IEEE transactions on pattern analysis and machine intelligence

2023 Volume 45, Issue 2, Page(s) 1353–1371

Abstract: The Gumbel-max trick is a method to draw a sample from a categorical distribution, given by its unnormalized (log-)probabilities. Over the past years, the machine learning community has proposed several extensions of this trick to facilitate, e.g., ... ...

Abstract	The Gumbel-max trick is a method to draw a sample from a categorical distribution, given by its unnormalized (log-)probabilities. Over the past years, the machine learning community has proposed several extensions of this trick to facilitate, e.g., drawing multiple samples, sampling from structured domains, or gradient estimation for error backpropagation in neural network optimization. The goal of this survey article is to present background about the Gumbel-max trick, and to provide a structured overview of its extensions to ease algorithm selection. Moreover, it presents a comprehensive outline of (machine learning) literature in which Gumbel-based algorithms have been leveraged, reviews commonly-made design choices, and sketches a future perspective.
Language	English
Publishing date	2023-01-06
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article
ISSN	1939-3539
ISSN (online)	1939-3539
DOI	10.1109/TPAMI.2022.3157042
Database	MEDical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System OnLINE

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Article ; Online: Mental labour.

Kool, Wouter / Botvinick, Matthew

Nature human behaviour

2018 Volume 2, Issue 12, Page(s) 899–908

Abstract: Mental effort is an elementary notion in our folk psychology and a familiar fixture in everyday introspective experience. However, as an object of scientific study, mental effort has remained rather elusive. Cognitive psychology has provided some tools ... ...

Abstract	Mental effort is an elementary notion in our folk psychology and a familiar fixture in everyday introspective experience. However, as an object of scientific study, mental effort has remained rather elusive. Cognitive psychology has provided some tools for understanding how effort impacts performance, by linking effort with cognitive control function. What has remained less clear are the principles that govern the allocation of mental effort. Under what circumstances do people choose to invest mental effort, and when do they decline to do so? And what regulates the intensity of mental effort when it is applied? In new and promising work, these questions are being approached with the tools of behavioural economics. Though still in its infancy, this economic approach to mental effort research has already uncovered important aspects of effort-based decision-making, and points clearly to future lines of inquiry, including some intriguing opportunities presented by recent artificial intelligence research.
MeSH term(s)	Cognition ; Decision Making ; Economics, Behavioral ; Humans ; Reward ; Work/psychology
Language	English
Publishing date	2018-09-03
Publishing country	England
Document type	Journal Article ; Review
ISSN	2397-3374
ISSN (online)	2397-3374
DOI	10.1038/s41562-018-0401-9
Database	MEDical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System OnLINE

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Book ; Online: Unbiased Gradient Estimation with Balanced Assignments for Mixtures of Experts

Kool, Wouter / Maddison, Chris J. / Mnih, Andriy

2021

Abstract: Training large-scale mixture of experts models efficiently on modern hardware requires assigning datapoints in a batch to different experts, each with a limited capacity. Recently proposed assignment procedures lack a probabilistic interpretation and use ...

Abstract	Training large-scale mixture of experts models efficiently on modern hardware requires assigning datapoints in a batch to different experts, each with a limited capacity. Recently proposed assignment procedures lack a probabilistic interpretation and use biased estimators for training. As an alternative, we propose two unbiased estimators based on principled stochastic assignment procedures: one that skips datapoints which exceed expert capacity, and one that samples perfectly balanced assignments using an extension of the Gumbel-Matching distribution [29]. Both estimators are unbiased, as they correct for the used sampling procedure. On a toy experiment, we find the `skip'-estimator is more effective than the balanced sampling one, and both are more robust in solving the task than biased alternatives.
Keywords	Computer Science - Machine Learning ; Statistics - Machine Learning
Publishing date	2021-09-24
Publishing country	us
Document type	Book ; Online
Database	BASE - Bielefeld Academic Search Engine (life sciences selection)

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Article ; Online: Planning Complexity Registers as a Cost in Metacontrol.

Kool, Wouter / Gershman, Samuel J / Cushman, Fiery A

Journal of cognitive neuroscience

2018 Volume 30, Issue 10, Page(s) 1391–1404

Abstract: Decision-making algorithms face a basic tradeoff between accuracy and effort (i.e., computational demands). It is widely agreed that humans can choose between multiple decision-making processes that embody different solutions to this tradeoff: Some are ... ...

Abstract	Decision-making algorithms face a basic tradeoff between accuracy and effort (i.e., computational demands). It is widely agreed that humans can choose between multiple decision-making processes that embody different solutions to this tradeoff: Some are computationally cheap but inaccurate, whereas others are computationally expensive but accurate. Recent progress in understanding this tradeoff has been catalyzed by formalizing it in terms of model-free (i.e., habitual) versus model-based (i.e., planning) approaches to reinforcement learning. Intuitively, if two tasks offer the same rewards for accuracy but one of them is much more demanding, we might expect people to rely on habit more in the difficult task: Devoting significant computation to achieve slight marginal accuracy gains would not be "worth it." We test and verify this prediction in a sequential reinforcement learning task. Because our paradigm is amenable to formal analysis, it contributes to the development of a computational model of how people balance the costs and benefits of different decision-making processes in a task-specific manner; in other words, how we decide when hard thinking is worth it.
MeSH term(s)	Adult ; Aged ; Anticipation, Psychological/physiology ; Decision Making/physiology ; Female ; Humans ; Male ; Middle Aged ; Psychomotor Performance/physiology ; Serial Learning/physiology ; Young Adult
Language	English
Publishing date	2018-04-18
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article ; Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't ; Research Support, U.S. Gov't, Non-P.H.S.
ZDB-ID	1007410-7
ISSN	1530-8898 ; 0898-929X ; 1096-8857
ISSN (online)	1530-8898
ISSN	0898-929X ; 1096-8857
DOI	10.1162/jocn_a_01263
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