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Article ; Online: Normative Processing Needs Multiple Levels of Explanation: From Algorithm to Implementation.

Vogel, Todd / Lockwood, Patricia L

Perspectives on psychological science : a journal of the Association for Psychological Science

2023 Volume 19, Issue 1, Page(s) 53–56

Abstract: Norms are the rules about what is allowed or forbidden by social groups. A key debate for norm psychology is whether these rules arise from mechanisms that are domain-specific and genetically inherited or domain-general and deployed for many other ... ...

Abstract	Norms are the rules about what is allowed or forbidden by social groups. A key debate for norm psychology is whether these rules arise from mechanisms that are domain-specific and genetically inherited or domain-general and deployed for many other nonnorm processes. Here we argue for the importance of assessing and testing domain-specific and domain-general processes at multiple levels of explanation, from algorithmic (psychological) to implementational (neural). We also critically discuss findings from cognitive neuroscience supporting that social and nonsocial learning processes, essential for accounts of cultural evolution, can be dissociated at these two levels. This multilevel framework can generate new hypotheses and empirical tests of cultural evolution accounts of norm processing against purely domain-specific nativist alternatives.
MeSH term(s)	Humans ; Learning ; Cognitive Neuroscience ; Cultural Evolution ; Algorithms ; Social Behavior
Language	English
Publishing date	2023-07-28
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	2224911-4
ISSN	1745-6924 ; 1745-6916
ISSN (online)	1745-6924
ISSN	1745-6916
DOI	10.1177/17456916231187393
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Article ; Online: The computational psychiatry of antisocial behaviour and psychopathy.

Pauli, Ruth / Lockwood, Patricia L

Neuroscience and biobehavioral reviews

2022 Volume 145, Page(s) 104995

Abstract: Antisocial behaviours such as disobedience, lying, stealing, destruction of property, and aggression towards others are common to multiple disorders of childhood and adulthood, including conduct disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, psychopathy, and ... ...

Abstract	Antisocial behaviours such as disobedience, lying, stealing, destruction of property, and aggression towards others are common to multiple disorders of childhood and adulthood, including conduct disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, psychopathy, and antisocial personality disorder. These disorders have a significant negative impact for individuals and for society, but whether they represent clinically different phenomena, or simply different approaches to diagnosing the same underlying psychopathology is highly debated. Computational psychiatry, with its dual focus on identifying different classes of disorder and health (data-driven) and latent cognitive and neurobiological mechanisms (theory-driven), is well placed to address these questions. The elucidation of mechanisms that might characterise latent processes across different disorders of antisocial behaviour can also provide important advances. In this review, we critically discuss the contribution of computational research to our understanding of various antisocial behaviour disorders, and highlight suggestions for how computational psychiatry can address important clinical and scientific questions about these disorders in the future.
MeSH term(s)	Humans ; Antisocial Personality Disorder/psychology ; Conduct Disorder/diagnosis ; Conduct Disorder/psychology ; Attention Deficit and Disruptive Behavior Disorders ; Aggression/psychology ; Psychiatry
Language	English
Publishing date	2022-12-16
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article ; Review ; Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
ZDB-ID	282464-4
ISSN	1873-7528 ; 0149-7634
ISSN (online)	1873-7528
ISSN	0149-7634
DOI	10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104995
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Article ; Online: Neural activity tracking identity and confidence in social information.

Trudel, Nadescha / Lockwood, Patricia L / Rushworth, Matthew F S / Wittmann, Marco K

eLife

2023 Volume 12

Abstract: Humans learn about the environment either directly by interacting with it or indirectly by seeking information about it from social sources such as conspecifics. The degree of confidence in the information obtained through either route should determine ... ...

Abstract	Humans learn about the environment either directly by interacting with it or indirectly by seeking information about it from social sources such as conspecifics. The degree of confidence in the information obtained through either route should determine the impact that it has on adapting and changing behaviour. We examined whether and how behavioural and neural computations differ during non-social learning as opposed to learning from social sources. Trial-wise confidence judgements about non-social and social information sources offered a window into this learning process. Despite matching exactly the statistical features of social and non-social conditions, confidence judgements were more accurate and less changeable when they were made about social as opposed to non-social information sources. In addition to subjective reports of confidence, differences were also apparent in the Bayesian estimates of participants' subjective beliefs. Univariate activity in dorsomedial prefrontal cortex and posterior temporoparietal junction more closely tracked confidence about social as opposed to non-social information sources. In addition, the multivariate patterns of activity in the same areas encoded identities of social information sources compared to non-social information sources.
MeSH term(s)	Humans ; Decision Making ; Bayes Theorem ; Prefrontal Cortex ; Judgment
Language	English
Publishing date	2023-02-10
Publishing country	England
Document type	Journal Article ; Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
ZDB-ID	2687154-3
ISSN	2050-084X ; 2050-084X
ISSN (online)	2050-084X
ISSN	2050-084X
DOI	10.7554/eLife.71315
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Article ; Online: The anatomy of empathy: Vicarious experience and disorders of social cognition.

Lockwood, Patricia L

Behavioural brain research

2016 Volume 311, Page(s) 255–266

Abstract: Empathy, the ability to vicariously experience and to understand the affect of other people, is fundamental for successful social-cognitive ability and behaviour. Empathy is thought to be a critical facilitator of prosocial behaviour and is disrupted in ... ...

Abstract	Empathy, the ability to vicariously experience and to understand the affect of other people, is fundamental for successful social-cognitive ability and behaviour. Empathy is thought to be a critical facilitator of prosocial behaviour and is disrupted in a number of psychiatric and neurological disorders. Research has begun to uncover the neural basis of such 'vicarious experience', which has been studied as a proxy measure of empathy. Together, these studies have identified portions of the insula and anterior cingulate cortex as critically involved. A key debate is whether overlapping or non-overlapping brain areas respond to personal and vicarious experience. This review will highlight emerging evidence for both types of brain response. Importantly, animal models have suggested that there are central divisions between the anterior cingulate gyrus and anterior cingulate sulcus that may be crucial for understanding social behaviour. Attention to this specific anatomy of vicarious processing could therefore help shed light on the functional profile of empathy. Studies in individuals with psychopathy and autism spectrum disorders have found that vicarious experience is atypical. However, the precise nature of these atypicalities is mixed. Understanding the mechanisms of vicarious experience can enhance our knowledge of the neural basis of empathy and, ultimately, help those with disorders of social cognition and behaviour.
MeSH term(s)	Animals ; Brain/diagnostic imaging ; Brain/physiology ; Brain/physiopathology ; Cognition/physiology ; Empathy/physiology ; Humans ; Mental Disorders/diagnostic imaging ; Mental Disorders/physiopathology ; Social Perception
Language	English
Publishing date	2016-05-25
Publishing country	Netherlands
Document type	Journal Article ; Review ; Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
ZDB-ID	449927-x
ISSN	1872-7549 ; 0166-4328
ISSN (online)	1872-7549
ISSN	0166-4328
DOI	10.1016/j.bbr.2016.05.048
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Article ; Online: Age Differences in Prosocial Behavior Depend on Effort Costs.

Byrne, Kaileigh A / Lockwood, Patricia L / Ghaiumy Anaraky, Reza / Liu, Yizhou

The journals of gerontology. Series B, Psychological sciences and social sciences

2022 Volume 78, Issue 6, Page(s) 948–958

Abstract: Objectives: This study examined age differences in willingness to engage in effortful and effortless prosocial behavior for a fully anonymous recipient.: Method: Participants were recruited through the Prolific online recruitment platform. In ... ...

Abstract	Objectives: This study examined age differences in willingness to engage in effortful and effortless prosocial behavior for a fully anonymous recipient. Method: Participants were recruited through the Prolific online recruitment platform. In Experiment 1, older (N = 46) and younger (N = 65) adults completed the "pay-it-forward" effortful decision-making task with fixed effort demands and a version of the Dictator Game, an effortless prosocial decision-making task. In Experiment 2, older (N = 38) and younger (N = 42) adults completed the Dictator Game and a modified pay-it-forward decision-making task in which effort demands were calibrated to one's ability. Results: In both Experiments 1 and 2, older adults were more prosocial than younger adults on the effortless Dictator Game. In Experiment 1, older adults were less prosocial across all trials of the effortful pay-it-forward task. However, when the task was more achievable in Experiment 2, older adults were only less prosocial when the probability of a reward was low. Discussion: In everyday life, many prosocial contexts depend on effort expenditure. When prosocial activities are effortful, older adults are less willing to engage in prosocial behavior, particularly when reward likelihood is low, and instead focus on resource conservation. In the absence of such effort costs, older adults are more prosocial than younger adults. This work suggests that older adults may prefer to engage in prosocial behavior more than younger adults, but physical resource constraints may limit their ability to engage in such effortful prosocial activities.
MeSH term(s)	Humans ; Aged ; Altruism ; Decision Making ; Reward ; Probability ; Health Expenditures
Language	English
Publishing date	2022-12-16
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article ; Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
ZDB-ID	1223664-0
ISSN	1758-5368 ; 1079-5014
ISSN (online)	1758-5368
ISSN	1079-5014
DOI	10.1093/geronb/gbac194
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Article ; Online: Oxytocin modulates neurocomputational mechanisms underlying prosocial reinforcement learning.

Martins, Daniel / Lockwood, Patricia / Cutler, Jo / Moran, Rosalyn / Paloyelis, Yannis

Progress in neurobiology

2022 Volume 213, Page(s) 102253

Abstract: Humans often act in the best interests of others. However, how we learn which actions result in good outcomes for other people and the neurochemical systems that support this 'prosocial learning' remain poorly understood. Using computational models of ... ...

Abstract	Humans often act in the best interests of others. However, how we learn which actions result in good outcomes for other people and the neurochemical systems that support this 'prosocial learning' remain poorly understood. Using computational models of reinforcement learning, functional magnetic resonance imaging and dynamic causal modelling, we examined how different doses of intranasal oxytocin, a neuropeptide linked to social cognition, impact how people learn to benefit others (prosocial learning) and whether this influence could be dissociated from how we learn to benefit ourselves (self-oriented learning). We show that a low dose of oxytocin prevented decreases in prosocial performance over time, despite no impact on self-oriented learning. Critically, oxytocin produced dose-dependent changes in the encoding of prediction errors (PE) in the midbrain-subgenual anterior cingulate cortex (sgACC) pathway specifically during prosocial learning. Our findings reveal a new role of oxytocin in prosocial learning by modulating computations of PEs in the midbrain-sgACC pathway.
MeSH term(s)	Administration, Intranasal ; Gyrus Cinguli ; Humans ; Learning ; Oxytocin/pharmacology ; Reinforcement, Psychology
Chemical Substances	Oxytocin (50-56-6)
Language	English
Publishing date	2022-03-03
Publishing country	England
Document type	Journal Article ; Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
ZDB-ID	185535-9
ISSN	1873-5118 ; 0301-0082
ISSN (online)	1873-5118
ISSN	0301-0082
DOI	10.1016/j.pneurobio.2022.102253
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Article ; Online: l-DOPA and oxytocin influence the neurocomputational mechanisms of self-benefitting and prosocial reinforcement learning.

Jansen, Myrthe / Lockwood, Patricia L / Cutler, Jo / de Bruijn, Ellen R A

NeuroImage

2023 Volume 270, Page(s) 119983

Abstract: Humans learn through reinforcement, particularly when outcomes are unexpected. Recent research suggests similar mechanisms drive how we learn to benefit other people, that is, how we learn to be prosocial. Yet the neurochemical mechanisms underlying such ...

Abstract	Humans learn through reinforcement, particularly when outcomes are unexpected. Recent research suggests similar mechanisms drive how we learn to benefit other people, that is, how we learn to be prosocial. Yet the neurochemical mechanisms underlying such prosocial computations remain poorly understood. Here, we investigated whether pharmacological manipulation of oxytocin and dopamine influence the neurocomputational mechanisms underlying self-benefitting and prosocial reinforcement learning. Using a double-blind placebo-controlled cross-over design, we administered intranasal oxytocin (24 IU), dopamine precursor l-DOPA (100 mg + 25 mg carbidopa), or placebo over three sessions. Participants performed a probabilistic reinforcement learning task with potential rewards for themselves, another participant, or no one, during functional magnetic resonance imaging. Computational models of reinforcement learning were used to calculate prediction errors (PEs) and learning rates. Participants behavior was best explained by a model with different learning rates for each recipient, but these were unaffected by either drug. On the neural level, however, both drugs blunted PE signaling in the ventral striatum and led to negative signaling of PEs in the anterior mid-cingulate cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, inferior parietal gyrus, and precentral gyrus, compared to placebo, and regardless of recipient. Oxytocin (versus placebo) administration was additionally associated with opposing tracking of self-benefitting versus prosocial PEs in dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, insula and superior temporal gyrus. These findings suggest that both l-DOPA and oxytocin induce a context-independent shift from positive towards negative tracking of PEs during learning. Moreover, oxytocin may have opposing effects on PE signaling when learning to benefit oneself versus another.
MeSH term(s)	Humans ; Dopamine ; Learning ; Levodopa/pharmacology ; Magnetic Resonance Imaging ; Oxytocin/pharmacology ; Reinforcement, Psychology ; Reward
Chemical Substances	Dopamine (VTD58H1Z2X) ; Levodopa (46627O600J) ; Oxytocin (50-56-6)
Language	English
Publishing date	2023-02-26
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article ; Randomized Controlled Trial ; Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
ZDB-ID	1147767-2
ISSN	1095-9572 ; 1053-8119
ISSN (online)	1095-9572
ISSN	1053-8119
DOI	10.1016/j.neuroimage.2023.119983
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Article ; Online: Probing apathy in children and adolescents with the Apathy Motivation Index-Child version.

Hewitt, Samuel R C / Habicht, Johanna / Bowler, Aislinn / Lockwood, Patricia L / Hauser, Tobias U

Behavior research methods

2023

Abstract: Apathy is linked to mental health and altered neurocognitive functions such as learning and decision-making in healthy adults. Mental health problems typically begin to emerge during adolescence, yet little is known about how apathy develops due to an ... ...

Abstract	Apathy is linked to mental health and altered neurocognitive functions such as learning and decision-making in healthy adults. Mental health problems typically begin to emerge during adolescence, yet little is known about how apathy develops due to an absence of quantitative measurements specific to young people. Here, we present and evaluate the Apathy Motivation Index-Child Version (AMI-CV) for children and adolescents. We show across two samples of young people (aged 8 to 17 years, total N = 191) tested in schools in the UK and on a smartphone app, that the AMI-CV is a short, psychometrically sound measure to assess levels of apathy and motivation in young people. Similar to adult versions, the AMI-CV captures three distinct apathy domains: Behavioural Activation, Social Motivation and Emotional Sensitivity. The AMI-CV showed excellent construct validity with an alternative measure of apathy and external validity replicating specific links with related mental health traits shown in adults. Our results provide a short measure of self-reported apathy in young people that enables research into apathy development. The AMI-CV can be used in conjunction with the adult version to investigate the impact of levels of apathy across the lifespan.
Language	English
Publishing date	2023-08-03
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	231560-9
ISSN	1554-3528 ; 0743-3808 ; 1554-351X
ISSN (online)	1554-3528
ISSN	0743-3808 ; 1554-351X
DOI	10.3758/s13428-023-02184-4
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Article ; Online: Ventral anterior cingulate cortex and social decision-making.

Lockwood, Patricia L / Wittmann, Marco K

Neuroscience and biobehavioral reviews

2018 Volume 92, Page(s) 187–191

Abstract: Studies in the field of social neuroscience have recently made use of computational models of decision-making to provide new insights into how we learn about the self and others during social interactions. Importantly, these studies have increasingly ... ...

Abstract	Studies in the field of social neuroscience have recently made use of computational models of decision-making to provide new insights into how we learn about the self and others during social interactions. Importantly, these studies have increasingly drawn attention to brain areas outside of classical cortical "social brain" regions that may be critical for social processing. In particular, two portions of the ventral anterior cingulate cortex (vACC), subgenual anterior cingulate cortex and perigenual anterior cingulate cortex, have been linked to social and self learning signals, respectively. Here we discuss the emerging parallels between these studies. Uncovering the function of vACC during social interactions could provide important new avenues to understand social decision-making in health and disease.
MeSH term(s)	Brain Mapping ; Decision Making/physiology ; Gyrus Cinguli/physiology ; Humans ; Interpersonal Relations
Language	English
Publishing date	2018-06-07
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article ; Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't ; Review
ZDB-ID	282464-4
ISSN	1873-7528 ; 0149-7634
ISSN (online)	1873-7528
ISSN	0149-7634
DOI	10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.05.030
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Article ; Online: Extraordinary Altruism and Transcending the Self.

Crockett, Molly J / Lockwood, Patricia L

Trends in cognitive sciences

2018 Volume 22, Issue 12, Page(s) 1071–1073

Abstract: Longstanding psychological theories posit a link between empathy and altruism. A new study of anonymous kidney donors finds these 'extraordinary altruists' show an increased overlap in neural responses to pain for self and others. These findings, ... ...

Abstract	Longstanding psychological theories posit a link between empathy and altruism. A new study of anonymous kidney donors finds these 'extraordinary altruists' show an increased overlap in neural responses to pain for self and others. These findings, alongside other recent studies of altruism, shed new light on the nature of selflessness.
MeSH term(s)	Altruism ; Ego ; Empathy ; Humans
Language	English
Publishing date	2018-09-28
Publishing country	England
Document type	Journal Article ; Review
ZDB-ID	2010989-1
ISSN	1879-307X ; 1364-6613
ISSN (online)	1879-307X
ISSN	1364-6613
DOI	10.1016/j.tics.2018.09.003
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