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Article ; Online: Predictive learning: its key role in early cognitive development.

Nagai, Yukie

Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences

2019 Volume 374, Issue 1771, Page(s) 20180030

Abstract: What is a fundamental ability for cognitive development? Although many researchers have been addressing this question, no shared understanding has been acquired yet. We propose that predictive learning of sensorimotor signals plays a key role in early ... ...

Abstract	What is a fundamental ability for cognitive development? Although many researchers have been addressing this question, no shared understanding has been acquired yet. We propose that predictive learning of sensorimotor signals plays a key role in early cognitive development. The human brain is known to represent sensorimotor signals in a predictive manner, i.e. it attempts to minimize prediction error between incoming sensory signals and top-down prediction. We extend this view and suggest that two mechanisms for minimizing prediction error lead to the development of cognitive abilities during early infancy. The first mechanism is to update an immature predictor. The predictor must be trained through sensorimotor experiences because it does not inherently have prediction ability. The second mechanism is to execute an action anticipated by the predictor. Interacting with other individuals often increases prediction error, which can be minimized by executing one's own action corresponding to others' action. Our experiments using robotic systems replicated developmental dynamics observed in infants. The capabilities of self-other cognition and goal-directed action were acquired based on the first mechanism, whereas imitation and prosocial behaviours emerged based on the second mechanism. Our theory further provides a potential mechanism for autism spectrum condition. Atypical tolerance for prediction error is hypothesized to be a cause of perceptual and social difficulties. This article is part of the theme issue 'From social brains to social robots: applying neurocognitive insights to human-robot interaction'.
MeSH term(s)	Autism Spectrum Disorder/psychology ; Brain/physiology ; Cognition ; Humans ; Infant ; Learning ; Robotics
Language	English
Publishing date	2019-03-21
Publishing country	England
Document type	Journal Article ; Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't ; Review
ZDB-ID	208382-6
ISSN	1471-2970 ; 0080-4622 ; 0264-3839 ; 0962-8436
ISSN (online)	1471-2970
ISSN	0080-4622 ; 0264-3839 ; 0962-8436
DOI	10.1098/rstb.2018.0030
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Article ; Online: Emergence of integrated behaviors through direct optimization for homeostasis.

Yoshida, Naoto / Daikoku, Tatsuya / Nagai, Yukie / Kuniyoshi, Yasuo

Neural networks : the official journal of the International Neural Network Society

2024 Volume 177, Page(s) 106379

Abstract: Homeostasis is a self-regulatory process, wherein an organism maintains a specific internal physiological state. Homeostatic reinforcement learning (RL) is a framework recently proposed in computational neuroscience to explain animal behavior. ... ...

Abstract	Homeostasis is a self-regulatory process, wherein an organism maintains a specific internal physiological state. Homeostatic reinforcement learning (RL) is a framework recently proposed in computational neuroscience to explain animal behavior. Homeostatic RL organizes the behaviors of autonomous embodied agents according to the demands of the internal dynamics of their bodies, coupled with the external environment. Thus, it provides a basis for real-world autonomous agents, such as robots, to continually acquire and learn integrated behaviors for survival. However, prior studies have generally explored problems pertaining to limited size, as the agent must handle observations of such coupled dynamics. To overcome this restriction, we developed an advanced method to realize scaled-up homeostatic RL using deep RL. Furthermore, several rewards for homeostasis have been proposed in the literature. We identified that the reward definition that uses the difference in drive function yields the best results. We created two benchmark environments for homeostasis and performed a behavioral analysis. The analysis showed that the trained agents in each environment changed their behavior based on their internal physiological states. Finally, we extended our method to address vision using deep convolutional neural networks. The analysis of a trained agent revealed that it has visual saliency rooted in the survival environment and internal representations resulting from multimodal input.
Language	English
Publishing date	2024-05-08
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	740542-x
ISSN	1879-2782 ; 0893-6080
ISSN (online)	1879-2782
ISSN	0893-6080
DOI	10.1016/j.neunet.2024.106379
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Article ; Online: Early development of saliency-driven attention through object manipulation.

Sun, Lichao / Francis, David J / Nagai, Yukie / Yoshida, Hanako

Acta psychologica

2024 Volume 243, Page(s) 104124

Abstract: In the first years of life, infants progressively develop attention selection skills to gather information from visually clustered environments. As young as newborns, infants are sensitive to the distinguished differences in color, orientation, and ... ...

Abstract	In the first years of life, infants progressively develop attention selection skills to gather information from visually clustered environments. As young as newborns, infants are sensitive to the distinguished differences in color, orientation, and luminance, which are the components of visual saliency. However, we know little about how saliency-driven attention emerges and develops socially through everyday free-viewing experiences. The present work assessed the saliency change in infants' egocentric scenes and investigated the impacts of manual engagements on infant object looking in the interactive context of object play. Thirty parent-infant dyads, including infants in two age groups (younger: 3- to 6-month-old; older: 9- to 12-month-old), completed a brief session of object play. Infants' looking behaviors were recorded by the head-mounted eye-tracking gear, and both parents' and infants' manual actions on objects were annotated separately for analyses. The present findings revealed distinct attention mechanisms that underlie the hand-eye coordination between parents and infants and within infants during object play: younger infants are predominantly biased toward the characteristics of the visual saliency accompanying the parent's handled actions on the objects; on the other hand, older infants gradually employed more attention to the object, regardless of the saliency in view, as they gained more self-generated manual actions. Taken together, the present work highlights the tight coordination between visual experiences and sensorimotor competence and proposes a novel dyadic pathway to sustained attention that social sensitivity to parents' hands emerges through saliency-driven attention, preparing infants to focus, follow, and steadily track moving targets in free-flow viewing activities.
MeSH term(s)	Humans ; Infant ; Attention ; Child Development ; Visual Perception
Language	English
Publishing date	2024-01-16
Publishing country	Netherlands
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	1480049-4
ISSN	1873-6297 ; 0001-6918
ISSN (online)	1873-6297
ISSN	0001-6918
DOI	10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104124
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Article ; Online: Non-autistic persons modulate their speech rhythm while talking to autistic individuals.

Daikoku, Tatsuya / Kumagaya, Shinichiro / Ayaya, Satsuki / Nagai, Yukie

PloS one

2023 Volume 18, Issue 9, Page(s) e0285591

Abstract: How non-autistic persons modulate their speech rhythm while talking to autistic (AUT) individuals remains unclear. We investigated two types of phonological characteristics: (1) the frequency power of each prosodic, syllabic, and phonetic rhythm and (2) ... ...

Abstract	How non-autistic persons modulate their speech rhythm while talking to autistic (AUT) individuals remains unclear. We investigated two types of phonological characteristics: (1) the frequency power of each prosodic, syllabic, and phonetic rhythm and (2) the dynamic interaction among these rhythms using speech between AUT and neurotypical (NT) individuals. Eight adults diagnosed with AUT (all men; age range, 24-44 years) and eight age-matched non-autistic NT adults (three women, five men; age range, 23-45 years) participated in this study. Six NT and eight AUT respondents were asked by one of the two NT questioners (both men) to share their recent experiences on 12 topics. We included 87 samples of AUT-directed speech (from an NT questioner to an AUT respondent), 72 of NT-directed speech (from an NT questioner to an NT respondent), 74 of AUT speech (from an AUT respondent to an NT questioner), and 55 of NT speech (from an NT respondent to an NT questioner). We found similarities between AUT speech and AUT-directed speech, and between NT speech and NT-directed speech. Prosody and interactions between prosodic, syllabic, and phonetic rhythms were significantly weaker in AUT-directed and AUT speech than in NT-directed and NT speech, respectively. AUT speech showed weaker dynamic processing from higher to lower phonological bands (e.g. from prosody to syllable) than NT speech. Further, we found that the weaker the frequency power of prosody in NT and AUT respondents, the weaker the frequency power of prosody in NT questioners. This suggests that NT individuals spontaneously imitate speech rhythms of the NT and AUT interlocutor. Although the speech sample of questioners came from just two NT individuals, our findings may suggest the possibility that the phonological characteristics of a speaker influence those of the interlocutor.
MeSH term(s)	Male ; Adult ; Humans ; Female ; Young Adult ; Middle Aged ; Speech ; Autistic Disorder ; Phonetics ; Speech Perception
Language	English
Publishing date	2023-09-28
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article ; Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
ZDB-ID	2267670-3
ISSN	1932-6203 ; 1932-6203
ISSN (online)	1932-6203
ISSN	1932-6203
DOI	10.1371/journal.pone.0285591
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Article ; Online: Active Inference Through Energy Minimization in Multimodal Affective Human-Robot Interaction.

Horii, Takato / Nagai, Yukie

Frontiers in robotics and AI

2021 Volume 8, Page(s) 684401

Abstract: During communication, humans express their emotional states using various modalities (e.g., facial expressions and gestures), and they estimate the emotional states of others by paying attention to multimodal signals. To ensure that a communication robot ...

Abstract	During communication, humans express their emotional states using various modalities (e.g., facial expressions and gestures), and they estimate the emotional states of others by paying attention to multimodal signals. To ensure that a communication robot with limited resources can pay attention to such multimodal signals, the main challenge involves selecting the most effective modalities among those expressed. In this study, we propose an active perception method that involves selecting the most informative modalities using a criterion based on energy minimization. This energy-based model can learn the probability of the network state using energy values, whereby a lower energy value represents a higher probability of the state. A multimodal deep belief network, which is an energy-based model, was employed to represent the relationships between the emotional states and multimodal sensory signals. Compared to other active perception methods, the proposed approach demonstrated improved accuracy using limited information in several contexts associated with affective human-robot interaction. We present the differences and advantages of our method compared to other methods through mathematical formulations using, for example, information gain as a criterion. Further, we evaluate performance of our method, as pertains to active inference, which is based on the free energy principle. Consequently, we establish that our method demonstrated superior performance in tasks associated with mutually correlated multimodal information.
Language	English
Publishing date	2021-11-26
Publishing country	Switzerland
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	2781824-X
ISSN	2296-9144 ; 2296-9144
ISSN (online)	2296-9144
ISSN	2296-9144
DOI	10.3389/frobt.2021.684401
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Article ; Online: Comprehensive intervention for reducing stigma of autism spectrum disorders: Incorporating the experience of simulated autistic perception and social contact.

Tsujita, Masaki / Homma, Miho / Kumagaya, Shin-Ichiro / Nagai, Yukie

PloS one

2023 Volume 18, Issue 8, Page(s) e0288586

Abstract: Stigma of autism spectrum disorders (ASD) is a crucial factor leading to a lower quality of life for individuals with ASD. This research evaluated an intervention effect for the stigma through an experience of simulated autistic visual perception and ... ...

Abstract	Stigma of autism spectrum disorders (ASD) is a crucial factor leading to a lower quality of life for individuals with ASD. This research evaluated an intervention effect for the stigma through an experience of simulated autistic visual perception and video-based social contact. The intervention was conducted as an experiential workshop for the ASD simulator. Participants (N = 217; 156 women, 61 men; a mean age of 41.3) voluntarily attended the workshop. In the workshop, they received a short lecture on autistic perception, a simulated experience using the ASD simulator, a narrative video of individuals with ASD, and a group discussion. They completed the multidimensional attitudes scale, which was developed to measure four attitudes toward ASD: negative affect, calm, cognitions, and behaviors. The attitudes were measured three times: the period of registration with the workshop, during participation in the workshop, and six weeks after the workshop. With regard to the measure during participation in the workshop, attendees responded to the attitudes at the beginning or end of the workshop, to confirm whether attitudes changes were attributed to the effectiveness of the intervention or artifacts resulting from participation in the workshop. A significant reduction was observed in negative affective attitudes at the end of the workshop and persisted even six weeks afterward, even though not observed in calm, cognitive, and behavioral attitudes. Our findings suggest that implementation of our intervention can bring about reduction of the stigma associated with ASD. Further studies with a random sampling method are needed to validate its generalizability and elaborate the components of the intervention.
MeSH term(s)	Male ; Humans ; Female ; Adult ; Autism Spectrum Disorder/psychology ; Autistic Disorder/therapy ; Autistic Disorder/complications ; Quality of Life ; Social Stigma ; Visual Perception
Language	English
Publishing date	2023-08-02
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article ; Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
ZDB-ID	2267670-3
ISSN	1932-6203 ; 1932-6203
ISSN (online)	1932-6203
ISSN	1932-6203
DOI	10.1371/journal.pone.0288586
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Article ; Online: The effects of palatinose on attention and cerebral blood flow in healthy adults: A randomized double-blind placebo-controlled crossover study.

Yamamoto, Natsumi / Sakazaki, Miki / Nagai, Yukie / Shoji, Masanori / Kawashima, Ryuta

Brain research

2023 Volume 1820, Page(s) 148553

Abstract: Objective: The primary energy source for the brain is glucose, and a continuous supply is required for the brain to work longer. This study aimed to verify the effects of palatinose on attention and cerebral blood flow in healthy adults.: Methods: ... ...

Abstract	Objective: The primary energy source for the brain is glucose, and a continuous supply is required for the brain to work longer. This study aimed to verify the effects of palatinose on attention and cerebral blood flow in healthy adults. Methods: This randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover study included 64 healthy Japanese adults. Participants performed the Digit Vigilance Task (DVT) 60 min pre-ingestion (14:00) and 0 (15:00), 60 (16:00), 120 (17:00), and 180 (18:00) min after ingestion of 10 g of either palatinose or glucose. Cerebral blood flow was measured using a wearable 2CH functional near-infrared spectrometer (fNIRS) during each DVT. The participants underwent the Uchida-Kraepelin (UK) test between each DVT to control for fatigue. Results: DVT reaction times with palatinose intake were significantly shorter than those with glucose intake at 16:00, 17:00, and 18:00 (p = 0.0015, p < 0.001, and p < 0.001, respectively). The change in cerebral blood flow as a function of total hemoglobin level was significantly higher in the palatinose group than in the glucose group (p = 0.018). Regarding the post-UK mood questionnaire, "physically fatigued" and "annoyed" were significantly lower in the palatinose intake group compared to the glucose intake group at 17:00 (p = 0.0445 and p = 0.0318, respectively). Furthermore, "physically fatigued" was significantly lower, and "seriously" was higher in the palatinose intake compared to the glucose intake group at 18:00 (p = 0.00652 and p < 0.001, respectively). Conclusion: These findings suggest that 10 g of palatinose has favorable effects on attention and cerebral blood flow. Trial registration: UMIN000046182.
Language	English
Publishing date	2023-08-25
Publishing country	Netherlands
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	1200-2
ISSN	1872-6240 ; 0006-8993
ISSN (online)	1872-6240
ISSN	0006-8993
DOI	10.1016/j.brainres.2023.148553
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Article: Quantifying developmental and individual differences in spontaneous drawing completion among children.

Philippsen, Anja / Tsuji, Sho / Nagai, Yukie

Frontiers in psychology

2022 Volume 13, Page(s) 783446

Abstract: This study investigated how children's drawings can provide insights into their cognitive development. It can be challenging to quantify the diversity of children's drawings across their developmental stages as well as between individuals. This study ... ...

Abstract	This study investigated how children's drawings can provide insights into their cognitive development. It can be challenging to quantify the diversity of children's drawings across their developmental stages as well as between individuals. This study observed children's representational drawing ability by conducting a completion task where children could freely draw on partially drawn objects, and quantitatively analyzed differences in children's drawing tendencies across age and between individuals. First, we conducted preregistered analyses, based on crowd-sourced adult ratings, to investigate the differences of drawing style with the age and autistic traits of the children, where the latter was inspired by reports of atypical drawing among children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Additionally, the drawings were quantified using feature representations extracted with a deep convolutional neural network (CNN), which allowed an analysis of the drawings at different perceptual levels (i.e., local or global). Findings revealed a decrease in scribbling and an increase in completion behavior with increasing age. However, no correlation between drawing behavior and autistic traits was found. The network analysis demonstrated that older children adapted to the presented stimuli in a more adult-like manner than younger children. Furthermore, ways to quantify individual differences in how children adapt to the presented stimuli are explored. Based on the predictive coding theory as a unified theory of how perception and behavior might emerge from integrating sensations and predictions, we suggest that our analyses may open up new possibilities for investigating children's cognitive development.
Language	English
Publishing date	2022-11-11
Publishing country	Switzerland
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	2563826-9
ISSN	1664-1078
ISSN	1664-1078
DOI	10.3389/fpsyg.2022.783446
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Article: Editorial: Affective shared perception.

Sciutti, Alessandra / Barros, Pablo / Castellano, Ginevra / Nagai, Yukie

Frontiers in integrative neuroscience

2022 Volume 16, Page(s) 1024267

Language	English
Publishing date	2022-09-09
Publishing country	Switzerland
Document type	Editorial
ZDB-ID	2452962-X
ISSN	1662-5145
ISSN	1662-5145
DOI	10.3389/fnint.2022.1024267
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Article: Simulating Developmental and Individual Differences of Drawing Behavior in Children Using a Predictive Coding Model.

Philippsen, Anja / Tsuji, Sho / Nagai, Yukie

Frontiers in neurorobotics

2022 Volume 16, Page(s) 856184

Abstract: Predictive coding has recently been proposed as a mechanistic approach to explain human perception and behavior based on the integration of perceptual stimuli (bottom-up information) and the predictions about the world based on previous experience (top- ... ...

Abstract	Predictive coding has recently been proposed as a mechanistic approach to explain human perception and behavior based on the integration of perceptual stimuli (bottom-up information) and the predictions about the world based on previous experience (top-down information). However, the gap between the computational accounts of cognition and evidence of behavioral studies remains large. In this study, we used a computational model of drawing based on the mechanisms of predictive coding to systematically investigate the effects of the precision of top-down and bottom-up information when performing a drawing completion task. The results indicated that sufficient precision of both signals was required for the successful completion of the stimuli and that a reduced precision in either sensory or prediction (i.e., prior) information led to different types of atypical drawing behavior. We compared the drawings produced by our model to a dataset of drawings created by children aged between 2 and 8 years old who drew on incomplete drawings. This comparison revealed that a gradual increase in children's precision of top-down and bottom-up information as they develop effectively explains the observed change of drawing style from scribbling toward representational drawing. Furthermore, individual differences that are prevalent in children's drawings, might arise from different developmental pathways regarding the precision of these two signals. Based on these findings we propose a theory of how both general and individual development of drawing could be explained in a unified manner within the framework of predictive coding.
Language	English
Publishing date	2022-06-20
Publishing country	Switzerland
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	2453002-5
ISSN	1662-5218
ISSN	1662-5218
DOI	10.3389/fnbot.2022.856184
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