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Article ; Online: The Relevance of Attention Control, Not Working Memory, in Human Factors.

Pak, Richard / McLaughlin, Anne Collins / Engle, Randall

2023 Volume 66, Issue 5, Page(s) 1321–1332

Abstract: Objective: Discuss the human factors relevance of attention control (AC), a domain-general ability to regulate information processing functions in the service of goal-directed behavior.: Background: Working memory (WM) measures appear as predictors ... ...

Abstract	Objective: Discuss the human factors relevance of attention control (AC), a domain-general ability to regulate information processing functions in the service of goal-directed behavior. Background: Working memory (WM) measures appear as predictors in various applied psychology studies. However, measures of WM reflect a mixture of memory storage and controlled attention making it difficult to interpret the meaning of significant WM-task relations for human factors. In light of new research, complex task performance may be better predicted or explained with new measures of attention control rather than WM. Method: We briefly review the topic of individual differences in abilities in Human Factors. Next, we focus on WM, how it is measured, and what can be inferred from significant WM-task relations. Results: The theoretical underpinnings of attention control as a high-level factor that affects complex thought and behavior make it useful in human factors, which often study performance in complex and dynamic task environments. To facilitate research on attention control in applied settings, we discuss a validated measure of attention control that predicts more variance in complex task performance than WM. In contrast to existing measures of WM or AC, our measures of attention control only require 3 minutes each (10 minutes total) and may be less culture-bound making them suitable for use in applied settings. Conclusion: Explaining or predicting task performance relations with attention control rather than WM may have dramatically different implications for designing more specific, equitable task interfaces, or training. Application: A highly efficient ability predictor can help researchers and practitioners better understand task requirements for human factors interventions or performance prediction.
MeSH term(s)	Humans ; Memory, Short-Term/physiology ; Attention/physiology ; Cognition/physiology ; Task Performance and Analysis ; Individuality
Language	English
Publishing date	2023-02-28
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	212725-8
ISSN	1547-8181 ; 0018-7208
ISSN (online)	1547-8181
ISSN	0018-7208
DOI	10.1177/00187208231159727
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Article ; Online: Enhancing component-specific trust with consumer automated systems through humanness design.

Lopez, Jeremy / Watkins, Heather / Pak, Richard

Ergonomics

2022 Volume 66, Issue 2, Page(s) 291–302

Abstract: Consumer automation is a suitable venue for studying the efficacy of untested humanness design methods for promoting specific trust in multi-component systems. Subjective (trust, self-confidence) and behavioural (use, manual override) measures were ... ...

Abstract	Consumer automation is a suitable venue for studying the efficacy of untested humanness design methods for promoting specific trust in multi-component systems. Subjective (trust, self-confidence) and behavioural (use, manual override) measures were recorded as 82 participants interacted with a four-component automation-bearing system in a simulated smart home task for two experimental blocks. During the first block all components were perfectly reliable (100%). During the second block, one component became unreliable (60%). Participants interacted with a system containing either a single or four simulated voice assistants. In the single-assistant condition, the unreliable component resulted in trust changes for every component. In the four-assistant condition, trust decreased for only the unreliable component. Across agent-number conditions, use decreased between blocks for only the unreliable component. Self-confidence and overrides exhibited ceiling and floor effects, respectively. Our findings provide the first evidence of effectively using humanness design to enhance component-specific trust in consumer systems.
MeSH term(s)	Humans ; Trust ; Task Performance and Analysis ; Reproducibility of Results ; Man-Machine Systems ; Automation
Language	English
Publishing date	2022-05-27
Publishing country	England
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	1920-3
ISSN	1366-5847 ; 0014-0139
ISSN (online)	1366-5847
ISSN	0014-0139
DOI	10.1080/00140139.2022.2079728
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Article ; Online: Nature and measurement of attention control.

Burgoyne, Alexander P / Tsukahara, Jason S / Mashburn, Cody A / Pak, Richard / Engle, Randall W

Journal of experimental psychology. General

2023 Volume 152, Issue 8, Page(s) 2369–2402

Abstract: Individual differences in the ability to control attention are correlated with a wide range of important outcomes, from academic achievement and job performance to health behaviors and emotion regulation. Nevertheless, the theoretical nature of attention ...

Abstract	Individual differences in the ability to control attention are correlated with a wide range of important outcomes, from academic achievement and job performance to health behaviors and emotion regulation. Nevertheless, the theoretical nature of attention control as a cognitive construct has been the subject of heated debate, spurred on by psychometric issues that have stymied efforts to reliably measure differences in the ability to control attention. For theory to advance, our measures must improve. We introduce three efficient, reliable, and valid tests of attention control that each take less than 3 min to administer: Stroop Squared, Flanker Squared, and Simon Squared. Two studies (online and in-lab) comprising more than 600 participants demonstrate that the three "Squared" tasks have great internal consistency (avg. = .95) and test-retest reliability across sessions (avg.
MeSH term(s)	Humans ; Reproducibility of Results ; Attention/physiology ; Memory, Short-Term/physiology ; Intelligence/physiology ; Psychometrics
Language	English
Publishing date	2023-04-20
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	189732-9
ISSN	1939-2222 ; 0096-3445
ISSN (online)	1939-2222
ISSN	0096-3445
DOI	10.1037/xge0001408
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Article ; Online: The role of attention control in complex real-world tasks.

Draheim, Christopher / Pak, Richard / Draheim, Amanda A / Engle, Randall W

Psychonomic bulletin & review

2022 Volume 29, Issue 4, Page(s) 1143–1197

Abstract: Working memory capacity is an important psychological construct, and many real-world phenomena are strongly associated with individual differences in working memory functioning. Although working memory and attention are intertwined, several studies have ... ...

Abstract	Working memory capacity is an important psychological construct, and many real-world phenomena are strongly associated with individual differences in working memory functioning. Although working memory and attention are intertwined, several studies have recently shown that individual differences in the general ability to control attention is more strongly predictive of human behavior than working memory capacity. In this review, we argue that researchers would therefore generally be better suited to studying the role of attention control rather than memory-based abilities in explaining real-world behavior and performance in humans. The review begins with a discussion of relevant literature on the nature and measurement of both working memory capacity and attention control, including recent developments in the study of individual differences of attention control. We then selectively review existing literature on the role of both working memory and attention in various applied settings and explain, in each case, why a switch in emphasis to attention control is warranted. Topics covered include psychological testing, cognitive training, education, sports, police decision-making, human factors, and disorders within clinical psychology. The review concludes with general recommendations and best practices for researchers interested in conducting studies of individual differences in attention control.
MeSH term(s)	Attention ; Humans ; Individuality ; Memory, Short-Term ; Sports
Language	English
Publishing date	2022-02-15
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article ; Review
ZDB-ID	2031311-1
ISSN	1531-5320 ; 1069-9384
ISSN (online)	1531-5320
ISSN	1069-9384
DOI	10.3758/s13423-021-02052-2
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Article ; Online: Near-Perfect Automation: Investigating Performance, Trust, and Visual Attention Allocation.

Foroughi, Cyrus K / Devlin, Shannon / Pak, Richard / Brown, Noelle L / Sibley, Ciara / Coyne, Joseph T

Human factors

2021 Volume 65, Issue 4, Page(s) 546–561

Abstract: Objective: Assess performance, trust, and visual attention during the monitoring of a near-perfect automated system.: Background: Research rarely attempts to assess performance, trust, and visual attention in near-perfect automated systems even ... ...

Abstract	Objective: Assess performance, trust, and visual attention during the monitoring of a near-perfect automated system. Background: Research rarely attempts to assess performance, trust, and visual attention in near-perfect automated systems even though they will be relied on in high-stakes environments. Methods: Seventy-three participants completed a 40-min supervisory control task where they monitored three search feeds. All search feeds were 100% reliable with the exception of two automation failures: one miss and one false alarm. Eye-tracking and subjective trust data were collected. Results: Thirty-four percent of participants correctly identified the automation miss, and 67% correctly identified the automation false alarm. Subjective trust increased when participants did not detect the automation failures and decreased when they did. Participants who detected the false alarm had a more complex scan pattern in the 2 min centered around the automation failure compared with those who did not. Additionally, those who detected the failures had longer dwell times in and transitioned to the center sensor feed significantly more often. Conclusion: Not only does this work highlight the limitations of the human when monitoring near-perfect automated systems, it begins to quantify the subjective experience and attentional cost of the human. It further emphasizes the need to (1) reevaluate the role of the operator in future high-stakes environments and (2) understand the human on an individual level and actively design for the given individual when working with near-perfect automated systems. Application: Multiple operator-level measures should be collected in real-time in order to monitor an operator's state and leverage real-time, individualized assistance.
MeSH term(s)	Humans ; Task Performance and Analysis ; Trust ; Automation ; Language ; Man-Machine Systems
Language	English
Publishing date	2021-08-04
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article ; Research Support, U.S. Gov't, Non-P.H.S.
ZDB-ID	212725-8
ISSN	1547-8181 ; 0018-7208
ISSN (online)	1547-8181
ISSN	0018-7208
DOI	10.1177/00187208211032889
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Article ; Online: From 'automation' to 'autonomy': the importance of trust repair in human-machine interaction.

de Visser, Ewart J / Pak, Richard / Shaw, Tyler H

Ergonomics

2018 Volume 61, Issue 10, Page(s) 1409–1427

Abstract: Modern interactions with technology are increasingly moving away from simple human use of computers as tools to the establishment of human relationships with autonomous entities that carry out actions on our behalf. In a recent commentary, Peter Hancock ... ...

Abstract	Modern interactions with technology are increasingly moving away from simple human use of computers as tools to the establishment of human relationships with autonomous entities that carry out actions on our behalf. In a recent commentary, Peter Hancock issued a stark warning to the field of human factors that attention must be focused on the appropriate design of a new class of technology: highly autonomous systems. In this article, we heed the warning and propose a human-centred approach directly aimed at ensuring that future human-autonomy interactions remain focused on the user's needs and preferences. By adapting literature from industrial psychology, we propose a framework to infuse a unique human-like ability, building and actively repairing trust, into autonomous systems. We conclude by proposing a model to guide the design of future autonomy and a research agenda to explore current challenges in repairing trust between humans and autonomous systems. Practitioner Summary: This paper is a call to practitioners to re-cast our connection to technology as akin to a relationship between two humans rather than between a human and their tools. To that end, designing autonomy with trust repair abilities will ensure future technology maintains and repairs relationships with their human partners.
MeSH term(s)	Computers ; Humans ; Man-Machine Systems ; Technology ; Trust
Language	English
Publishing date	2018-04-09
Publishing country	England
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	1920-3
ISSN	1366-5847 ; 0014-0139
ISSN (online)	1366-5847
ISSN	0014-0139
DOI	10.1080/00140139.2018.1457725
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Article ; Online: Towards Ethical AI: Empirically Investigating Dimensions of AI Ethics, Trust Repair, and Performance in Human-AI Teaming.

Schelble, Beau G / Lopez, Jeremy / Textor, Claire / Zhang, Rui / McNeese, Nathan J / Pak, Richard / Freeman, Guo

Human factors

2022 Volume 66, Issue 4, Page(s) 1037–1055

Abstract: Objective: Determining the efficacy of two trust repair strategies (apology and denial) for trust violations of an ethical nature by an autonomous teammate.: Background: While ethics in human-AI interaction is extensively studied, little research has ...

Abstract	Objective: Determining the efficacy of two trust repair strategies (apology and denial) for trust violations of an ethical nature by an autonomous teammate. Background: While ethics in human-AI interaction is extensively studied, little research has investigated how decisions with ethical implications impact trust and performance within human-AI teams and their subsequent repair. Method: Forty teams of two participants and one autonomous teammate completed three team missions within a synthetic task environment. The autonomous teammate made an ethical or unethical action during each mission, followed by an apology or denial. Measures of individual team trust, autonomous teammate trust, human teammate trust, perceived autonomous teammate ethicality, and team performance were taken. Results: Teams with unethical autonomous teammates had significantly lower trust in the team and trust in the autonomous teammate. Unethical autonomous teammates were also perceived as substantially more unethical. Neither trust repair strategy effectively restored trust after an ethical violation, and autonomous teammate ethicality was not related to the team score, but unethical autonomous teammates did have shorter times. Conclusion: Ethical violations significantly harm trust in the overall team and autonomous teammate but do not negatively impact team score. However, current trust repair strategies like apologies and denials appear ineffective in restoring trust after this type of violation. Application: This research highlights the need to develop trust repair strategies specific to human-AI teams and trust violations of an ethical nature.
MeSH term(s)	Humans ; Trust ; Artificial Intelligence/ethics
Language	English
Publishing date	2022-08-06
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	212725-8
ISSN	1547-8181 ; 0018-7208
ISSN (online)	1547-8181
ISSN	0018-7208
DOI	10.1177/00187208221116952
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Article: Looking for Age Differences in Self-Driving Vehicles: Examining the Effects of Automation Reliability, Driving Risk, and Physical Impairment on Trust.

Rovira, Ericka / McLaughlin, Anne Collins / Pak, Richard / High, Luke

Frontiers in psychology

2019 Volume 10, Page(s) 800

Abstract: Purpose: Self-driving cars are an extremely high level of autonomous technology and represent a promising technology that may help older adults safely maintain independence. However, human behavior with automation is complex and not straightforward ( ... ...

Abstract	Purpose: Self-driving cars are an extremely high level of autonomous technology and represent a promising technology that may help older adults safely maintain independence. However, human behavior with automation is complex and not straightforward (Parasuraman and Riley, 1997; Parasuraman, 2000; Rovira et al., 2007; Parasuraman and Wickens, 2008; Parasuraman and Manzey, 2010; Parasuraman et al., 2012). In addition, because no fully self-driving vehicles are yet available to the public, most research has been limited to subjective survey-based assessments that depend on the respondents' limited knowledge based on second-hand reports and do not reflect the complex situational and dispositional factors known to affect trust and technology adoption. Methods: To address these issues, the current study examined the specific factors that affect younger and older adults' trust in self-driving vehicles. Results: The results showed that trust in self-driving vehicles depended on multiple interacting variables, such as the age of the respondent, risk during travel, impairment level of the hypothesized driver, and whether the self-driving car was reliable. Conclusion: The primary contribution of this work is that, contrary to existing opinion surveys which suggest broad distrust in self-driving cars, the ratings of trust in self-driving cars varied with situational characteristics (reliability, driver impairment, risk level). Specifically, individuals reported less trust in the self-driving car when there was a failure with the car technology; and more trust in the technology in a low risk driving situation with an unimpaired driver when the automation was unreliable.
Language	English
Publishing date	2019-04-26
Publishing country	Switzerland
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	2563826-9
ISSN	1664-1078
ISSN	1664-1078
DOI	10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00800
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Article ; Online: Factors that affect younger and older adults' causal attributions of robot behaviour.

Pak, Richard / Crumley-Branyon, Jessica J / de Visser, Ewart J / Rovira, Ericka

Ergonomics

2020 Volume 63, Issue 4, Page(s) 421–439

Abstract: Stereotypes are cognitive shortcuts that facilitate efficient social judgments about others. Just as causal attributions affect perceptions of people, they may similarly affect perceptions of technology, particularly anthropomorphic technology such as ... ...

Abstract	Stereotypes are cognitive shortcuts that facilitate efficient social judgments about others. Just as causal attributions affect perceptions of people, they may similarly affect perceptions of technology, particularly anthropomorphic technology such as robots. In a scenario-based study, younger and older adults judged the performance and capability of an anthropomorphised robot that appeared young or old. In some cases, the robot successfully performed a task while at other times it failed. Results showed that older adult participants were more susceptible to aging stereotypes as indicated by trust. In addition, both younger and older adult participants succumbed to aging stereotypes when measuring perceived capability of the robots. Finally, a summary of causal reasoning results showed that our participants may have applied aging stereotypes to older-appearing robots: they were most likely to give credit to a properly functioning robot when it appeared
MeSH term(s)	Adolescent ; Adult ; Age Factors ; Aged ; Female ; Humans ; Male ; Robotics ; Social Perception ; Stereotyping ; Young Adult
Language	English
Publishing date	2020-03-04
Publishing country	England
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	1920-3
ISSN	1366-5847 ; 0014-0139
ISSN (online)	1366-5847
ISSN	0014-0139
DOI	10.1080/00140139.2020.1734242
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Article ; Online: Detecting automation failures in a simulated supervisory control environment.

Foroughi, Cyrus K / Sibley, Ciara / Brown, Noelle L / Rovira, Ericka / Pak, Richard / Coyne, Joseph T

Ergonomics

2019 Volume 62, Issue 9, Page(s) 1150–1161

Abstract: The goal of this research was to determine how individuals perform and allocate their visual attention when monitoring multiple automated displays that differ in automation reliability. Ninety-six participants completed a simulated supervisory control ... ...

Abstract	The goal of this research was to determine how individuals perform and allocate their visual attention when monitoring multiple automated displays that differ in automation reliability. Ninety-six participants completed a simulated supervisory control task where each automated display had a different level of reliability (namely 70%, 85% and 95%). In addition, participants completed a high and low workload condition. The performance data revealed that (1) participants' failed to detect automation misses approximately 2.5 times more than automation false alarms, (2) participants' had worse automation failure detection in the high workload condition and (3) participant automation failure detection remained mostly static across reliability. The eye tracking data revealed that participants spread their attention relatively equally across all three of the automated displays for the duration of the experiment. Together, these data support a system-wide trust approach as the default position of an individual monitoring multiple automated displays.
MeSH term(s)	Aircraft/instrumentation ; Attention ; Automation ; Aviation ; Computer Simulation ; Computer Terminals ; Equipment Failure ; Eye Movements ; Female ; Humans ; Male ; Task Performance and Analysis ; Trust/psychology ; Workload/psychology ; Young Adult
Language	English
Publishing date	2019-06-26
Publishing country	England
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	1920-3
ISSN	1366-5847 ; 0014-0139
ISSN (online)	1366-5847
ISSN	0014-0139
DOI	10.1080/00140139.2019.1629639
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