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Article ; Online: Evaluation of Production Lots of a Rapid Point-of-Care Lateral Flow Serological Test Intended for Identification of IgM and IgG against the N-Terminal Part of the Spike Protein (S1) of SARS-CoV-2.

Hoffman, Tove / Kolstad, Linda / Rönnberg, Bengt / Lundkvist, Åke

2021 Volume 13, Issue 6

Abstract: The potential of rapid point-of-care (POC) tests has been subject of doubt due to an eventual risk of production errors. The aim was therefore to evaluate the two separate production lots of a commercial POC lateral flow test, intended for the detection ... ...

Abstract	The potential of rapid point-of-care (POC) tests has been subject of doubt due to an eventual risk of production errors. The aim was therefore to evaluate the two separate production lots of a commercial POC lateral flow test, intended for the detection of IgM and IgG against the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein (S1). Control samples consisted of serum from individuals with confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection and pre-COVID-19 negative sera gathered from a biobank. The presence of anti-S1 IgM/IgG in the sera was verified by an in-house Luminex-based serological assay (COVID-19 SIA). One hundred samples were verified as positive for anti-S1 IgG and 74 for anti-S1 IgM. Two hundred samples were verified as negative for anti-S1 IgM/IgG. For the two lots of the POC-test, the sensitivities were 93.2% and 87.8% for IgM and 93.0% and 100% for IgG. The specificities were 100% for IgM and 99.5% for IgG. The positive predictive value was 100% for IgM and 98.9% and 99.0% for IgG. The negative predictive value was 97.6% and 95.7% for IgM, and 96.6% and 100% for IgG. The evaluated POC-test is suitable to assess anti-SARS-CoV-2 S1 IgM and IgG, as a measure of previous virus exposure on an individual level. The external validation of separate lots of rapid POC-tests is encouraged to ensure high sensitivity before market introduction.
MeSH term(s)	Antibodies, Viral/blood ; Antibodies, Viral/immunology ; COVID-19/diagnosis ; COVID-19/immunology ; COVID-19 Serological Testing/methods ; Humans ; Immunoglobulin G/blood ; Immunoglobulin G/immunology ; Immunoglobulin M/blood ; Immunoglobulin M/immunology ; Point-of-Care Testing ; Sensitivity and Specificity ; Spike Glycoprotein, Coronavirus/immunology
Chemical Substances	Antibodies, Viral ; Immunoglobulin G ; Immunoglobulin M ; Spike Glycoprotein, Coronavirus ; spike glycoprotein, SARS-CoV
Language	English
Publishing date	2021-05-31
Publishing country	Switzerland
Document type	Evaluation Study ; Journal Article ; Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
ZDB-ID	2516098-9
ISSN	1999-4915 ; 1999-4915
ISSN (online)	1999-4915
ISSN	1999-4915
DOI	10.3390/v13061043
Database	MEDical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System OnLINE

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Article ; Online: Reduced Binding between Omicron B.1.1.529 and the Human ACE2 Receptor in a Surrogate Virus Neutralization Test for SARS-CoV-2.

Hoffman, Tove / Kolstad, Linda / Akaberi, Dario / Järhult, Josef D / Rönnberg, Bengt / Lundkvist, Åke

Viruses

2023 Volume 15, Issue 6

Abstract: The current gold standard assay for detecting neutralizing antibodies (NAbs) against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the conventional virus neutralization test (cVNT), which requires infectious virus and a biosafety level ... ...

Abstract	The current gold standard assay for detecting neutralizing antibodies (NAbs) against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the conventional virus neutralization test (cVNT), which requires infectious virus and a biosafety level 3 laboratory. Here, we report the development of a SARS-CoV-2 surrogate virus neutralization test (sVNT) that, with Luminex technology, detects NAbs. The assay was designed to mimic the virus-host interaction and is based on antibody blockage between the human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (hACE2) receptor and the spike (S) protein of the Wuhan, Delta, and Omicron (B.1.1.529) variants of SARS-CoV-2. The sVNT proved to have a 100% correlation with a SARS-CoV-2 cVNT regarding qualitative results. Binding between the hACE2 receptor and the S1 domain of the B.1.1.529 lineage of the Omicron variant was not observed in the assay but between the receptor and an S1 + S2 trimer and the receptor binding domain (RBD) in a reduced manner, suggesting less efficient receptor binding for the B.1.1.529 Omicron variant. The results indicate that the SARS-CoV-2 sVNT is a suitable tool for both the research community and the public health service, as it may serve as an efficient diagnostic alternative to the cVNT.
MeSH term(s)	Humans ; Neutralization Tests ; Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2 ; SARS-CoV-2/genetics ; COVID-19/diagnosis ; Antibodies, Neutralizing ; Spike Glycoprotein, Coronavirus/genetics ; Antibodies, Viral
Chemical Substances	Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2 (EC 3.4.17.23) ; Antibodies, Neutralizing ; Spike Glycoprotein, Coronavirus ; Antibodies, Viral ; spike protein, SARS-CoV-2
Language	English
Publishing date	2023-05-30
Publishing country	Switzerland
Document type	Journal Article ; Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
ZDB-ID	2516098-9
ISSN	1999-4915 ; 1999-4915
ISSN (online)	1999-4915
ISSN	1999-4915
DOI	10.3390/v15061280
Database	MEDical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System OnLINE

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Article: Evaluation of Production Lots of a Rapid Point-of-Care Lateral Flow Serological Test Intended for Identification of IgM and IgG against the N-Terminal Part of the Spike Protein (S1) of SARS-CoV-2

Hoffman, Tove / Kolstad, Linda / Rönnberg, Bengt / Lundkvist, Åke

Viruses. 2021 May 31, v. 13, no. 6

2021

Abstract	The potential of rapid point-of-care (POC) tests has been subject of doubt due to an eventual risk of production errors. The aim was therefore to evaluate the two separate production lots of a commercial POC lateral flow test, intended for the detection of IgM and IgG against the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein (S1). Control samples consisted of serum from individuals with confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection and pre-COVID-19 negative sera gathered from a biobank. The presence of anti-S1 IgM/IgG in the sera was verified by an in-house Luminex-based serological assay (COVID-19 SIA). One hundred samples were verified as positive for anti-S1 IgG and 74 for anti-S1 IgM. Two hundred samples were verified as negative for anti-S1 IgM/IgG. For the two lots of the POC-test, the sensitivities were 93.2% and 87.8% for IgM and 93.0% and 100% for IgG. The specificities were 100% for IgM and 99.5% for IgG. The positive predictive value was 100% for IgM and 98.9% and 99.0% for IgG. The negative predictive value was 97.6% and 95.7% for IgM, and 96.6% and 100% for IgG. The evaluated POC-test is suitable to assess anti-SARS-CoV-2 S1 IgM and IgG, as a measure of previous virus exposure on an individual level. The external validation of separate lots of rapid POC-tests is encouraged to ensure high sensitivity before market introduction.
Keywords	COVID-19 infection ; Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 ; blood serum ; immunoaffinity chromatography ; immunologic techniques ; markets ; point-of-care systems ; risk ; viruses
Language	English
Dates of publication	2021-0531
Publishing place	Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute
Document type	Article
ZDB-ID	2516098-9
ISSN	1999-4915
ISSN	1999-4915
DOI	10.3390/v13061043
Database	NAL-Catalogue (AGRICOLA)

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Article: Antibody responses to tick-borne encephalitis virus non-structural protein 1 and whole virus antigen-a new tool in the assessment of suspected vaccine failure patients.

Albinsson, Bo / Rönnberg, Bengt / Vene, Sirkka / Lundkvist, Åke

Infection ecology & epidemiology

2019 Volume 9, Issue 1, Page(s) 1696132

Abstract: We report a new tool for improved serological diagnostics in suspected tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) vaccine failure cases. Due to an increase in the incidence of disease as well as the number of vaccinees, specific and simplified diagnostic methods are ... ...

Abstract	We report a new tool for improved serological diagnostics in suspected tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) vaccine failure cases. Due to an increase in the incidence of disease as well as the number of vaccinees, specific and simplified diagnostic methods are needed. Antibody responses to TBE-virus (TBEV) non-structural protein 1 (NS1) are detectable post TBEV infection but not post vaccination. We have used samples from 14 previously confirmed Swedish TBEV vaccine failure patients to study antibody responses against NS1 and whole virus antigens, respectively. Our conclusion is that the detection of antibodies directed to TBEV NS1 antigen is a useful tool to considerably simplify and improve the quality in investigations regarding suspected TBEV infection in vaccinated patients.
Language	English
Publishing date	2019-12-03
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	2627673-2
ISSN	2000-8686
ISSN	2000-8686
DOI	10.1080/20008686.2019.1696132
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Article ; Online: Seroprevalence of tick-borne encephalitis virus and vaccination coverage of tick-borne encephalitis, Sweden, 2018 to 2019.

Albinsson, Bo / Hoffman, Tove / Kolstad, Linda / Bergström, Tomas / Bogdanovic, Gordana / Heydecke, Anna / Hägg, Mirja / Kjerstadius, Torbjörn / Lindroth, Ylva / Petersson, Annika / Stenberg, Marie / Vene, Sirkka / Ellström, Patrik / Rönnberg, Bengt / Lundkvist, Åke

Euro surveillance : bulletin Europeen sur les maladies transmissibles = European communicable disease bulletin

2024 Volume 29, Issue 2

Abstract: BackgroundIn Sweden, information on seroprevalence of tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) in the population, including vaccination coverage and infection, is scattered. This is largely due to the absence of a national tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) ... ...

Abstract	BackgroundIn Sweden, information on seroprevalence of tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) in the population, including vaccination coverage and infection, is scattered. This is largely due to the absence of a national tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) vaccination registry, scarcity of previous serological studies and use of serological methods not distinguishing between antibodies induced by vaccination and infection. Furthermore, the number of notified TBE cases in Sweden has continued to increase in recent years despite increased vaccination.AimThe aim was to estimate the TBEV seroprevalence in Sweden.MethodsIn 2018 and 2019, 2,700 serum samples from blood donors in nine Swedish regions were analysed using a serological method that can distinguish antibodies induced by vaccination from antibodies elicited by infection. The regions were chosen to reflect differences in notified TBE incidence.ResultsThe overall seroprevalence varied from 9.7% (95% confidence interval (CI): 6.6-13.6%) to 64.0% (95% CI: 58.3-69.4%) between regions. The proportion of vaccinated individuals ranged from 8.7% (95% CI: 5.8-12.6) to 57.0% (95% CI: 51.2-62.6) and of infected from 1.0% (95% CI: 0.2-3.0) to 7.0% (95% CI: 4.5-10.7). Thus, more than 160,000 and 1,600,000 individuals could have been infected by TBEV and vaccinated against TBE, respectively. The mean manifestation index was 3.1%.ConclusionA difference was observed between low- and high-incidence TBE regions, on the overall TBEV seroprevalence and when separated into vaccinated and infected individuals. The estimated incidence and manifestation index argue that a large proportion of TBEV infections are not diagnosed.
MeSH term(s)	Humans ; Encephalitis, Tick-Borne/epidemiology ; Encephalitis, Tick-Borne/prevention & control ; Sweden/epidemiology ; Encephalitis Viruses, Tick-Borne ; Vaccination Coverage ; Seroepidemiologic Studies ; Flavivirus Infections ; Vaccination ; Antibodies, Viral
Chemical Substances	Antibodies, Viral
Language	English
Publishing date	2024-01-12
Publishing country	Sweden
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	1338803-4
ISSN	1560-7917 ; 1025-496X
ISSN (online)	1560-7917
ISSN	1025-496X
DOI	10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2024.29.2.2300221
Database	MEDical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System OnLINE

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Article ; Online: Evaluation of production lots of a rapid point-of-care lateral flow serological test intended for identification of IgM and IgG against the N-terminal part of the spike protein (S1) of SARS-CoV-2

Hoffman, Tove / Kolstad, Linda / Ronnberg, Bengt / Lundkvist, Ake

medRxiv

Abstract: Background and objectives: Several antibody tests are available to detect SARS-CoV-2 specific antibodies, many of which address different antigens. Rapid point-of-care (POC) tests have been doubted due to an eventual risk of production errors, although ... ...

Abstract	Background and objectives: Several antibody tests are available to detect SARS-CoV-2 specific antibodies, many of which address different antigens. Rapid point-of-care (POC) tests have been doubted due to an eventual risk of production errors, although it is unstudied whether such error would affect test sensitivity and/or specificity. We aimed to evaluate two separate production lots of a commercially available test intended for rapid detection of IgM and IgG against the N-terminal part of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein (S1). Materials and methods: Serum samples from individuals with confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection, by RT-PCR and/or serology, and pre-COVID-19 negative control sera gathered from a biobank during 2018 were collected. The presence of anti-S1 IgM/IgG was verified by an in-house Luminex-based serological assay, serving as reference method. The index test was a commercially available rapid POC-test (the COVID-19 IgG/IgM Rapid Test Cassette [Zhejiang Orient Gene Biotech Co Ltd, Huzhou, Zhejiang, China/Healgen Scientific, LLC, U.S.A.]). Results: One hundred samples were verified positive for anti-S1 IgG (median fluorescence intensity (MFI) greater than or equal to 900) and 74 for anti-S1 IgM (MFI greater than or equal to 700), confirmed by RT-PCR (n=90) and/or serology (n=89). None of the negative controls (n=200; MFI <300) had SARS-CoV-2 anti-S1 IgM, while one tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 anti-S1 IgG. For the two lots, the sensitivities of the rapid test were 93.2% (69/74; 95% CI: 85.1% - 97.1%) and 87.8% (65/74; 95% CI: 78.5% - 93.5%) for IgM, respectively 93.0% (93/100; 95% CI: 86.3% - 96.6%) and 100.0% for IgG (100/100; 95% CI: 96.3% - 100.0%). The specificity for both lots was 100% for IgM (200/200; 95% CI: 98.1% - 100%) and 99.5% for IgG (199/200; 95% CI: 97.2% - 99.9%). The positive predictive value was 100% for IgM and 98.9% and 99.0% for IgG. The negative predictive value was 95.7% and 97.6% for IgM, and 96.6% and 100.0% for IgG. Conclusion: The rapid POC-test used in this study is suitable to assess SARS-CoV-2 anti-S1 specific IgM/IgG, as a measure of previous virus exposure on an individual level. While the specificity was not affected by production lot, external validation of separate lots of rapid POC-tests is encouraged to ensure high sensitivity before market introduction.
Keywords	covid19
Language	English
Publishing date	2020-09-01
Publisher	Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press
Document type	Article ; Online
DOI	10.1101/2020.08.27.20182923
Database	COVID19

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Article: Diagnostic Potential of a Luminex-Based Coronavirus Disease 2019 Suspension Immunoassay (COVID-19 SIA) for the Detection of Antibodies against SARS-CoV-2

Hoffman, Tove / Kolstad, Linda / Lindahl, Johanna F. / Albinsson, Bo / Bergqvist, Anders / Rönnberg, Bengt / Lundkvist, Åke

Viruses. 2021 May 26, v. 13, no. 6

2021

Abstract: Due to the current, rapidly increasing Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, efficient and highly specific diagnostic methods are needed. The receptor-binding part of the spike (S) protein, S1, has been suggested to be highly virus-specific; it ... ...

Abstract	Due to the current, rapidly increasing Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, efficient and highly specific diagnostic methods are needed. The receptor-binding part of the spike (S) protein, S1, has been suggested to be highly virus-specific; it does not cross-react with antibodies against other coronaviruses. Three recombinant partial S proteins of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) expressed in mammalian or baculovirus-insect cells were evaluated as antigens in a Luminex-based suspension immunoassay (SIA). The best performing antigen (S1; amino acids 16-685) was selected and further evaluated by serum samples from 76 Swedish patients or convalescents with COVID-19 (previously PCR and/or serologically confirmed), 200 pre-COVID-19 individuals (180 blood donors and 20 infants), and 10 patients with acute Epstein-Barr virus infection. All 76 positive samples showed detectable antibodies to S1, while none of the 210 negative controls gave a false positive antibody reaction. We further compared the COVID-19 SIA with a commercially available enzyme immunoassay and a previously evaluated COVID-19 rapid antibody test. The results revealed an overall assay sensitivity of 100%, a specificity of 100% for both IgM and IgG, a quantitative ability at concentrations up to 25 BAU/mL, and a better performance as compared to the commercial assays, suggesting the COVID-19 SIA as a most valuable tool for efficient laboratory-based serology.
Keywords	COVID-19 infection ; Human gammaherpesvirus 4 ; Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 ; antibodies ; antigens ; blood serum ; enzyme immunoassays ; mammals ; pandemic ; serology
Language	English
Dates of publication	2021-0526
Publishing place	Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute
Document type	Article
ZDB-ID	2516098-9
ISSN	1999-4915
ISSN	1999-4915
DOI	10.3390/v13060993
Database	NAL-Catalogue (AGRICOLA)

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Article ; Online: Strict self-isolation did not protect Swedish cancer patients on active treatment from the risk of becoming seropositive for SARS-CoV-2.

Ginman, Beatrice / Pahnke, Simon / Freyhult, Eva / Hoffman, Tove / Kolstad, Linda / Rönnberg, Bengt / Lundkvist, Åke / Hamberg Levedahl, Kerstin / Enblad, Gunilla / Glimelius, Ingrid

Acta oncologica (Stockholm, Sweden)

2023 Volume 62, Issue 12, Page(s) 1707–1715

Abstract: Background: Swedish recommendations to reduce the risk of COVID-19 relied on each citizen's own sense of responsibility rather than mandatory lockdowns. We studied how COVID-19-related self-isolation and anxiety correlated to SARS-CoV-2 seropositivity ... ...

Abstract	Background: Swedish recommendations to reduce the risk of COVID-19 relied on each citizen's own sense of responsibility rather than mandatory lockdowns. We studied how COVID-19-related self-isolation and anxiety correlated to SARS-CoV-2 seropositivity and PCR-positivity in patients with active cancer treatment. Methods: In a longitudinal cohort study at Uppsala University Hospital patients and cancer personnel were included between April 1 Results: A total of 622 patients [ Conclusion: For Swedish patients on active cancer treatment, high self-assessed COVID-19-related anxiety or strict adherence to self-isolation guidelines were not associated with
MeSH term(s)	Humans ; Female ; SARS-CoV-2 ; COVID-19/epidemiology ; COVID-19/prevention & control ; Sweden/epidemiology ; Longitudinal Studies ; Communicable Disease Control ; Neoplasms/epidemiology ; Neoplasms/therapy
Language	English
Publishing date	2023-11-25
Publishing country	England
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	896449-x
ISSN	1651-226X ; 0349-652X ; 0284-186X ; 1100-1704
ISSN (online)	1651-226X
ISSN	0349-652X ; 0284-186X ; 1100-1704
DOI	10.1080/0284186X.2023.2257873
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Zs.A 6348: Show issues

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Article ; Online: Diagnostic Potential of a Luminex-Based Coronavirus Disease 2019 Suspension Immunoassay (COVID-19 SIA) for the Detection of Antibodies against SARS-CoV-2.

Hoffman, Tove / Kolstad, Linda / Lindahl, Johanna F / Albinsson, Bo / Bergqvist, Anders / Rönnberg, Bengt / Lundkvist, Åke

Viruses

2021 Volume 13, Issue 6

Abstract	Due to the current, rapidly increasing Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, efficient and highly specific diagnostic methods are needed. The receptor-binding part of the spike (S) protein, S1, has been suggested to be highly virus-specific; it does not cross-react with antibodies against other coronaviruses. Three recombinant partial S proteins of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) expressed in mammalian or baculovirus-insect cells were evaluated as antigens in a Luminex-based suspension immunoassay (SIA). The best performing antigen (S1; amino acids 16-685) was selected and further evaluated by serum samples from 76 Swedish patients or convalescents with COVID-19 (previously PCR and/or serologically confirmed), 200 pre-COVID-19 individuals (180 blood donors and 20 infants), and 10 patients with acute Epstein-Barr virus infection. All 76 positive samples showed detectable antibodies to S1, while none of the 210 negative controls gave a false positive antibody reaction. We further compared the COVID-19 SIA with a commercially available enzyme immunoassay and a previously evaluated COVID-19 rapid antibody test. The results revealed an overall assay sensitivity of 100%, a specificity of 100% for both IgM and IgG, a quantitative ability at concentrations up to 25 BAU/mL, and a better performance as compared to the commercial assays, suggesting the COVID-19 SIA as a most valuable tool for efficient laboratory-based serology.
MeSH term(s)	Antibodies, Viral/blood ; COVID-19/diagnosis ; COVID-19/immunology ; COVID-19 Serological Testing/methods ; Herpesvirus 4, Human/immunology ; Humans ; Immunoassay/methods ; Immunoglobulin G/blood ; Immunoglobulin G/immunology ; Immunoglobulin M/blood ; Immunoglobulin M/immunology ; Reproducibility of Results ; SARS-CoV-2/immunology ; Sensitivity and Specificity ; Spike Glycoprotein, Coronavirus/immunology
Chemical Substances	Antibodies, Viral ; Immunoglobulin G ; Immunoglobulin M ; Spike Glycoprotein, Coronavirus ; spike glycoprotein, SARS-CoV
Language	English
Publishing date	2021-05-26
Publishing country	Switzerland
Document type	Evaluation Study ; Journal Article ; Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
ZDB-ID	2516098-9
ISSN	1999-4915 ; 1999-4915
ISSN (online)	1999-4915
ISSN	1999-4915
DOI	10.3390/v13060993
Database	MEDical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System OnLINE

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Article ; Online: Influenza-A mediated pre-existing immunity levels to SARS-CoV-2 could predict early COVID-19 outbreak dynamics.

Almazán, Nerea Martín / Rahbar, Afsar / Carlsson, Marcus / Hoffman, Tove / Kolstad, Linda / Rönnberg, Bengt / Pantalone, Mattia Russel / Fuchs, Ilona Lewensohn / Nauclér, Anna / Ohlin, Mats / Sacharczuk, Mariusz / Religa, Piotr / Amér, Stefan / Molnár, Christian / Lundkvist, Åke / Susrud, Andres / Sörensen, Birger / Söderberg-Nauclér, Cecilia

iScience

2023 Volume 26, Issue 12, Page(s) 108441

Abstract: Susceptibility to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infections is highly variable and could be mediated by a cross-protective pre-immunity. We identified 14 cross-reactive peptides between SARS-CoV-2 and influenza A H1N1, H3N2, ...

Abstract	Susceptibility to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infections is highly variable and could be mediated by a cross-protective pre-immunity. We identified 14 cross-reactive peptides between SARS-CoV-2 and influenza A H1N1, H3N2, and human herpesvirus (HHV)-6A/B with potential relevance. The H1N1 peptide NGVEGF was identical to a peptide in the most critical receptor binding motif in SARS-CoV-2 spike protein that interacts with the angiotensin converting enzyme 2 receptor. About 62%-73% of COVID-19-negative blood donors in Stockholm had antibodies to this peptide in the early pre-vaccination phase of the pandemic. Seasonal flu vaccination enhanced neutralizing capacity to SARS-CoV-2 and T cell immunity to this peptide. Mathematical modeling taking the estimated pre-immunity levels to flu into account could fully predict pre-Omicron SARS-CoV-2 outbreaks in Stockholm and India. This cross-immunity provides mechanistic explanations to the epidemiological observation that influenza vaccination protected people against early SARS-CoV-2 infections and implies that flu-mediated cross-protective immunity significantly dampened the first SARS-CoV-2 outbreaks.
Language	English
Publishing date	2023-11-14
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article
ISSN	2589-0042
ISSN (online)	2589-0042
DOI	10.1016/j.isci.2023.108441
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