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Article: Non-adjacent dependency learning from variable input: investigating the effects of bilingualism, phonological memory, and cognitive control.

Verhagen, Josje / de Bree, Elise

2023 Volume 14, Page(s) 1127718

Abstract: Introduction: One proposed advantage of bilingualism concerns the ability to extract regularities based on frequency information (statistical learning). Specifically, it has been proposed that bilinguals have an advantage in statistical learning that ... ...

Abstract	Introduction: One proposed advantage of bilingualism concerns the ability to extract regularities based on frequency information (statistical learning). Specifically, it has been proposed that bilinguals have an advantage in statistical learning that particularly holds in situations of variable input. Empirical evidence on this matter is scarce. An additional question is whether a potential bilingual advantage in statistical learning can be attributed to enhancements in phonological memory and cognitive control. Previous findings on effects of bilingualism on phonological memory and cognitive control are not consistent. Method: In the present study, we compared statistical learning from consistent and variable input in monolingual and bilingual children (Study 1) and adults (Study 2). We also explored whether phonological memory and cognitive control might account for any potential group differences found. Results: The findings suggest that there might be some advantage of bilinguals in statistical learning, but that this advantage is not robust: It largely surfaced only in t-tests against chance for the groups separately, did not surface in the same way for children and adults, and was modulated by experiment order. Furthermore, our results provide no evidence that any enhancement in bilinguals' statistical learning was related to improved phonological memory and cognitive control: bilinguals did not outperform monolinguals on these cognitive measures and performance on these measures did not consistently relate to statistical learning outcomes. Discussion: Taken together, these findings suggest that any potential effects of bilingualism on statistical learning probably do not involve enhanced cognitive abilities associated with bilingualism.
Language	English
Publishing date	2023-07-12
Publishing country	Switzerland
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	2563826-9
ISSN	1664-1078
ISSN	1664-1078
DOI	10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1127718
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Article ; Online: Statistical learning in children with a family risk of dyslexia.

de Bree, Elise / Verhagen, Josje

Dyslexia (Chichester, England)

2022 Volume 28, Issue 2, Page(s) 185–201

Abstract: The assumption that statistical learning is affected in dyslexia has generally been evaluated in children and adults with diagnosed dyslexia, not in pre-literate children with a family risk (FR) of dyslexia. In this study, four-to-five-year-old FR ... ...

Abstract	The assumption that statistical learning is affected in dyslexia has generally been evaluated in children and adults with diagnosed dyslexia, not in pre-literate children with a family risk (FR) of dyslexia. In this study, four-to-five-year-old FR children (n = 25) and No-FR children (n = 33) completed tasks of emerging literacy (phoneme awareness and RAN). They also performed an online non-adjacent dependency learning (NADL) task, based on the Serial Reaction Time (SRT) task paradigm. Children's accuracy (hits), signal sensitivity (d') and reaction times were measured. The FR group performed marginally more poorly on phoneme awareness and significantly more poorly on RAN than the No-FR group. Regarding NADL outcomes, the results were less straightforward: the data suggested successful statistical learning for both groups, as indicated by the hit and reaction time curves found. However, the FR group was less accurate and slower on the task than the No-FR group. Furthermore, unlike the No-FR group, performance in the FR group varied as a function of the specific stimulus presented. Taken together, these findings fail to show a robust difference in statistical learning between children with and without an FR of dyslexia at preschool age, in line with earlier work on older children and adults with dyslexia.
MeSH term(s)	Adolescent ; Adult ; Child ; Child, Preschool ; Dyslexia/complications ; Dyslexia/diagnosis ; Humans ; Learning ; Literacy ; Reaction Time ; Reading
Language	English
Publishing date	2022-03-14
Publishing country	England
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	1501502-6
ISSN	1099-0909 ; 1076-9242
ISSN (online)	1099-0909
ISSN	1076-9242
DOI	10.1002/dys.1711
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Article: Language Entropy Relates to Behavioral and Pupil Indices of Executive Control in Young Adult Bilinguals.

van den Berg, Floor / Brouwer, Jelle / Tienkamp, Thomas B / Verhagen, Josje / Keijzer, Merel

Frontiers in psychology

2022 Volume 13, Page(s) 864763

Abstract: Introduction: It has been proposed that bilinguals' language use patterns are differentially associated with executive control. To further examine this, the present study relates the social diversity of bilingual language use to performance on a color- ... ...

Abstract	Introduction: It has been proposed that bilinguals' language use patterns are differentially associated with executive control. To further examine this, the present study relates the social diversity of bilingual language use to performance on a color-shape switching task (CSST) in a group of bilingual university students with diverse linguistic backgrounds. Crucially, this study used language entropy as a measure of bilinguals' language use patterns. This continuous measure reflects a spectrum of language use in a variety of social contexts, ranging from compartmentalized use to fully integrated use. Methods: Language entropy for university and non-university contexts was calculated from questionnaire data on language use. Reaction times (RTs) were measured to calculate global RT and switching and mixing costs on the CSST, representing conflict monitoring, mental set shifting, and goal maintenance, respectively. In addition, this study innovatively recorded a potentially more sensitive measure of set shifting abilities, namely, pupil size during task performance. Results: Higher university entropy was related to slower global RT. Neither university entropy nor non-university entropy were associated with switching costs as manifested in RTs. However, bilinguals with more compartmentalized language use in non-university contexts showed a larger difference in pupil dilation for switch trials in comparison with non-switch trials. Mixing costs in RTs were reduced for bilinguals with higher diversity of language use in non-university contexts. No such effects were found for university entropy. Discussion: These results point to the social diversity of bilinguals' language use as being associated with executive control, but the direction of the effects may depend on social context (university vs. non-university). Importantly, the results also suggest that some of these effects may only be detected by using more sensitive measures, such as pupil dilation. The paper discusses theoretical and practical implications regarding the language entropy measure and the cognitive effects of bilingual experiences more generally, as well as how methodological choices can advance our understanding of these effects.
Language	English
Publishing date	2022-05-04
Publishing country	Switzerland
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	2563826-9
ISSN	1664-1078
ISSN	1664-1078
DOI	10.3389/fpsyg.2022.864763
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Article ; Online: How do verbal short-term memory and working memory relate to the acquisition of vocabulary and grammar? A comparison between first and second language learners.

Verhagen, Josje / Leseman, Paul

Journal of experimental child psychology

2016 Volume 141, Page(s) 65–82

Abstract: Previous studies show that verbal short-term memory (VSTM) is related to vocabulary learning, whereas verbal working memory (VWM) is related to grammar learning in children learning a second language (L2) in the classroom. In this study, we investigated ... ...

Abstract	Previous studies show that verbal short-term memory (VSTM) is related to vocabulary learning, whereas verbal working memory (VWM) is related to grammar learning in children learning a second language (L2) in the classroom. In this study, we investigated whether the same relationships apply to children learning an L2 in a naturalistic setting and to monolingual children. We also investigated whether relationships with verbal memory differ depending on the type of grammar skill investigated (i.e., morphology vs. syntax). Participants were 63 Turkish children who learned Dutch as an L2 and 45 Dutch monolingual children (mean age = 5 years). Children completed a series of VSTM and VWM tasks, a Dutch vocabulary task, and a Dutch grammar task. A confirmatory factor analysis showed that VSTM and VWM represented two separate latent factors in both groups. Structural equation modeling showed that VSTM, treated as a latent factor, significantly predicted vocabulary and grammar. VWM, treated as a latent factor, predicted only grammar. Both memory factors were significantly related to the acquisition of morphology and syntax. There were no differences between the two groups. These results show that (a) VSTM and VWM are differentially associated with language learning and (b) the same memory mechanisms are employed for learning vocabulary and grammar in L1 children and in L2 children who learn their L2 naturalistically.
MeSH term(s)	Child ; Female ; Humans ; Language Development ; Language Tests ; Learning ; Linguistics ; Male ; Memory, Short-Term ; Multilingualism ; Netherlands ; Vocabulary
Language	English
Publishing date	2016-01
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Comparative Study ; Journal Article ; Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
ZDB-ID	218137-x
ISSN	1096-0457 ; 0022-0965
ISSN (online)	1096-0457
ISSN	0022-0965
DOI	10.1016/j.jecp.2015.06.015
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Article ; Online: Infant walking experience is related to the development of selective attention.

Mulder, Hanna / Oudgenoeg-Paz, Ora / Verhagen, Josje / van der Ham, Ineke J M / Van der Stigchel, Stefan

Journal of experimental child psychology

2022 Volume 220, Page(s) 105425

Abstract: Previous studies have shown that the way in which infants perceive and explore the world changes as they transition from crawling to walking. Infant walking onset generally precedes advances in cognitive development such as accelerated language growth. ... ...

Abstract	Previous studies have shown that the way in which infants perceive and explore the world changes as they transition from crawling to walking. Infant walking onset generally precedes advances in cognitive development such as accelerated language growth. However, the underlying mechanism explaining this association between walking experience and cognition is largely unknown. Selective attention is a key factor underlying learning across multiple domains. We propose that the altered visual input that infants obtain as they transition to walking relates to selective attention development and that advances in selective attention may potentially explain previously reported advances in other cognitive domains. As a first step in testing this hypothesis, we investigated how walking experience relates to selective attention. In Study 1, performance of 14-month-old crawlers, novice walkers, and expert walkers was compared on a visual search eye-tracking task (N = 47), including feature and conjunction (effortful) items. Walkers outperformed crawlers on the task in general, and effortful search was enhanced in expert walkers as compared with novice walkers, after controlling for crawling onset and general developmental differences occurring before walking onset. In Study 2, earlier walking onset was related to better visual search performance in 2-year-olds (N = 913). The association appeared to be due to the difference between the 10% latest walkers and the early/average walkers. Taken together, the results of these studies show that walking experience relates to advances in selective attention. This association shows a specific timing in development; it is mainly seen relatively close to the age of walking onset.
MeSH term(s)	Attention ; Child, Preschool ; Humans ; Infant ; Learning ; Locomotion ; Psychomotor Performance ; Walking
Language	English
Publishing date	2022-04-08
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	218137-x
ISSN	1096-0457 ; 0022-0965
ISSN (online)	1096-0457
ISSN	0022-0965
DOI	10.1016/j.jecp.2022.105425
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Article ; Online: Robustness of the cognitive gains in 7-month-old bilingual infants: A close multi-center replication of Kovács and Mehler (2009).

Spit, Sybren / Geambașu, Andreea / Renswoude, Daan van / Blom, Elma / Fikkert, Paula / Hunnius, Sabine / Junge, Caroline / Verhagen, Josje / Visser, Ingmar / Wijnen, Frank / Levelt, Clara C

Developmental science

2023 Volume 26, Issue 6, Page(s) e13377

Abstract: We present an exact replication of Experiment 2 from Kovács and Mehler's 2009 study, which showed that 7-month-old infants who are raised bilingually exhibit a cognitive advantage. In the experiment, a sound cue, following an AAB or ABB pattern, ... ...

Abstract	We present an exact replication of Experiment 2 from Kovács and Mehler's 2009 study, which showed that 7-month-old infants who are raised bilingually exhibit a cognitive advantage. In the experiment, a sound cue, following an AAB or ABB pattern, predicted the appearance of a visual stimulus on the screen. The stimulus appeared on one side of the screen for nine trials and then switched to the other side. In the original experiment, both mono- and bilingual infants anticipated where the visual stimulus would appear during pre-switch trials. However, during post-switch trials, only bilingual children anticipated that the stimulus would appear on the other side of the screen. The authors took this as evidence of a cognitive advantage. Using the exact same materials in combination with novel analysis techniques (Bayesian analyses, mixed effects modeling and cluster based permutation analyses), we assessed the robustness of these findings in four babylabs (N = 98). Our results did not replicate the original findings: although anticipatory looks increased slightly during post-switch trials for both groups, bilingual infants were not better switchers than monolingual infants. After the original experiment, we presented additional trials to examine whether infants associated sound patterns with cued locations, for which we did not find any evidence either. The results highlight the importance of multicenter replications and more fine-grained statistical analyses to better understand child development. HIGHLIGHTS: We carried out an exact replication across four baby labs of the high-impact study by Kovács and Mehler (2009). We did not replicate the findings of the original study, calling into question the robustness of the claim that bilingual infants have enhanced cognitive abilities. After the original experiment, we presented additional trials to examine whether infants correctly associated sound patterns with cued locations, for which we did not find any evidence. The use of novel analysis techniques (Bayesian analyses, mixed effects modeling and cluster based permutation analyses) allowed us to draw better-informed conclusions.
Language	English
Publishing date	2023-02-27
Publishing country	England
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	2023952-X
ISSN	1467-7687 ; 1363-755X
ISSN (online)	1467-7687
ISSN	1363-755X
DOI	10.1111/desc.13377
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Article ; Online: Reciprocal relationships between nonword repetition and vocabulary during the preschool years.

Verhagen, Josje / Boom, Jan / Mulder, Hanna / de Bree, Elise / Leseman, Paul

Developmental psychology

2019 Volume 55, Issue 6, Page(s) 1125–1137

Abstract: The aim of this longitudinal study is to evaluate 3 views on the relationship between nonword repetition and vocabulary: (i) the storage-based view that considers nonword repetition, a measure of phonological storage, as the driving force behind ... ...

Abstract	The aim of this longitudinal study is to evaluate 3 views on the relationship between nonword repetition and vocabulary: (i) the storage-based view that considers nonword repetition, a measure of phonological storage, as the driving force behind vocabulary development, (ii) the lexical restructuring view that considers improvements in nonword repetition as the result of vocabulary growth, and (iii) the "combined" view that assumes that both storage-based learning and lexical restructuring play a role, resulting in reciprocal relationships between nonword repetition and vocabulary during language development. Data are analyzed from 471 monolingual Dutch children who performed tasks assessing nonword repetition and vocabulary at yearly intervals, from ages 2 to 5. Latent Change Score (LCS) modeling of Item Response Theory-scaled scores was used to investigate the relationships between nonword repetition and vocabulary growth over time. Additionally, the statistical techniques used in earlier work-cross-lagged and latent growth modeling-were applied to see whether the results changed as a function of the analytical technique used. Results from a bivariate LCS model showed positive reciprocal influences from nonword repetition on vocabulary between 2 and 5 years. Such positive cross-influences also emerged from the cross-lagged and latent growth models. Predictive relationships from vocabulary to nonword repetition were stronger than vice versa. These results indicate that both storage-based learning and lexical restructuring play a role in vocabulary learning, at least in early stages of language development, with the clearest support found for lexical restructuring. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).
MeSH term(s)	Child Language ; Child, Preschool ; Female ; Humans ; Learning/physiology ; Longitudinal Studies ; Male ; Netherlands ; Phonetics ; Vocabulary
Language	English
Publishing date	2019-02-18
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	2066223-3
ISSN	1939-0599 ; 0012-1649
ISSN (online)	1939-0599
ISSN	0012-1649
DOI	10.1037/dev0000702
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Article ; Online: Children's reliance on the non-verbal cues of a robot versus a human.

Verhagen, Josje / Berghe, Rianne van den / Oudgenoeg-Paz, Ora / Küntay, Aylin / Leseman, Paul

PloS one

2019 Volume 14, Issue 12, Page(s) e0217833

Abstract: Robots are used for language tutoring increasingly often, and commonly programmed to display non-verbal communicative cues such as eye gaze and pointing during robot-child interactions. With a human speaker, children rely more strongly on non-verbal cues ...

Abstract	Robots are used for language tutoring increasingly often, and commonly programmed to display non-verbal communicative cues such as eye gaze and pointing during robot-child interactions. With a human speaker, children rely more strongly on non-verbal cues (pointing) than on verbal cues (labeling) if these cues are in conflict. However, we do not know how children weigh the non-verbal cues of a robot. Here, we assessed whether four- to six-year-old children (i) differed in their weighing of non-verbal cues (pointing, eye gaze) and verbal cues provided by a robot versus a human; (ii) weighed non-verbal cues differently depending on whether these contrasted with a novel or familiar label; and (iii) relied differently on a robot's non-verbal cues depending on the degree to which they attributed human-like properties to the robot. The results showed that children generally followed pointing over labeling, in line with earlier research. Children did not rely more strongly on the non-verbal cues of a robot versus those of a human. Regarding pointing, children who perceived the robot as more human-like relied on pointing more strongly when it contrasted with a novel label versus a familiar label, but children who perceived the robot as less human-like did not show this difference. Regarding eye gaze, children relied more strongly on the gaze cue when it contrasted with a novel versus a familiar label, and no effect of anthropomorphism was found. Taken together, these results show no difference in the degree to which children rely on non-verbal cues of a robot versus those of a human and provide preliminary evidence that differences in anthropomorphism may interact with children's reliance on a robot's non-verbal behaviors.
MeSH term(s)	Child ; Child, Preschool ; Communication ; Cues ; Female ; Fixation, Ocular ; Humans ; Language ; Male ; Nonverbal Communication/psychology ; Psychology, Child/methods ; Robotics/methods
Language	English
Publishing date	2019-12-19
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article ; Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
ZDB-ID	2267670-3
ISSN	1932-6203 ; 1932-6203
ISSN (online)	1932-6203
ISSN	1932-6203
DOI	10.1371/journal.pone.0217833
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Article ; Online: Effects of Vocabulary and Phonotactic Probability on 2-Year-Olds' Nonword Repetition.

Verhagen, Josje / de Bree, Elise / Mulder, Hanna / Leseman, Paul

Journal of psycholinguistic research

2017 Volume 46, Issue 3, Page(s) 507–524

Abstract: This study investigates the relationship between nonword repetition (NWR) and vocabulary in 2-year-olds. Questions addressed are whether (1) NWR and vocabulary are associated, (2) phonotactic probability affects NWR, and (3) there is an interaction ... ...

Abstract	This study investigates the relationship between nonword repetition (NWR) and vocabulary in 2-year-olds. Questions addressed are whether (1) NWR and vocabulary are associated, (2) phonotactic probability affects NWR, and (3) there is an interaction effect between phonotactic probability and vocabulary on NWR performance. The general aim of the study is to investigate whether NWR, as a task of phonological storage, assesses the quality of phonological representations in children as young as 2 years of age. 557 Dutch 2-year-olds performed a NWR task containing items of varying phonotactic probability as well as a receptive vocabulary task. The results showed a moderate, significant correlation between NWR and vocabulary. Phonotactic probability had an effect on NWR performance. Further analyses showed that there was a significant interaction between phonotactic probability and vocabulary for part of the items. These results support previously reported effects of vocabulary and phonotactic probability on NWR in older, English-speaking children for a large sample of Dutch-speaking 2-year-olds, and provide evidence that NWR assesses the quality of phonological representations already in very young children.
Language	English
Publishing date	2017-06
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	124517-x
ISSN	1573-6555 ; 0090-6905
ISSN (online)	1573-6555
ISSN	0090-6905
DOI	10.1007/s10936-016-9448-9
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Article ; Online: Robustness of the rule-learning effect in 7-month-old infants: A close, multicenter replication of Marcus et al. (1999).

Geambașu, Andreea / Spit, Sybren / van Renswoude, Daan / Blom, Elma / Fikkert, Paula J P M / Hunnius, Sabine / Junge, Caroline C M M / Verhagen, Josje / Visser, Ingmar / Wijnen, Frank / Levelt, Clara C

Developmental science

2022 Volume 26, Issue 1, Page(s) e13244

Abstract: We conducted a close replication of the seminal work by Marcus and colleagues from 1999, which showed that after a brief auditory exposure phase, 7-month-old infants were able to learn and generalize a rule to novel syllables not previously present in ... ...

Abstract	We conducted a close replication of the seminal work by Marcus and colleagues from 1999, which showed that after a brief auditory exposure phase, 7-month-old infants were able to learn and generalize a rule to novel syllables not previously present in the exposure phase. This work became the foundation for the theoretical framework by which we assume that infants are able to learn abstract representations and generalize linguistic rules. While some extensions on the original work have shown evidence of rule learning, the outcomes are mixed, and an exact replication of Marcus et al.'s study has thus far not been reported. A recent meta-analysis by Rabagliati and colleagues brings to light that the rule-learning effect depends on stimulus type (e.g., meaningfulness, speech vs. nonspeech) and is not as robust as often assumed. In light of the theoretical importance of the issue at stake, it is appropriate and necessary to assess the replicability and robustness of Marcus et al.'s findings. Here we have undertaken a replication across four labs with a large sample of 7-month-old infants (N = 96), using the same exposure patterns (ABA and ABB), methodology (Headturn Preference Paradigm), and original stimuli. As in the original study, we tested the hypothesis that infants are able to learn abstract "algebraic" rules and apply them to novel input. Our results did not replicate the original findings: infants showed no difference in looking time between test patterns consistent or inconsistent with the familiarization pattern they were exposed to.
MeSH term(s)	Infant ; Humans ; Learning ; Speech
Language	English
Publishing date	2022-02-24
Publishing country	England
Document type	Multicenter Study ; Journal Article ; Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
ZDB-ID	2023952-X
ISSN	1467-7687 ; 1363-755X
ISSN (online)	1467-7687
ISSN	1363-755X
DOI	10.1111/desc.13244
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