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Article ; Online: Automated facial expression measurement in a longitudinal sample of 4- and 8-month-olds: Baby FaceReader 9 and manual coding of affective expressions.

Zaharieva, Martina S / Salvadori, Eliala A / Messinger, Daniel S / Visser, Ingmar / Colonnesi, Cristina

2024

Abstract: Facial expressions are among the earliest behaviors infants use to express emotional states, and are crucial to preverbal social interaction. Manual coding of infant facial expressions, however, is laborious and poses limitations to replicability. Recent ...

Abstract	Facial expressions are among the earliest behaviors infants use to express emotional states, and are crucial to preverbal social interaction. Manual coding of infant facial expressions, however, is laborious and poses limitations to replicability. Recent developments in computer vision have advanced automated facial expression analyses in adults, providing reproducible results at lower time investment. Baby FaceReader 9 is commercially available software for automated measurement of infant facial expressions, but has received little validation. We compared Baby FaceReader 9 output to manual micro-coding of positive, negative, or neutral facial expressions in a longitudinal dataset of 58 infants at 4 and 8 months of age during naturalistic face-to-face interactions with the mother, father, and an unfamiliar adult. Baby FaceReader 9's global emotional valence formula yielded reasonable classification accuracy (AUC = .81) for discriminating manually coded positive from negative/neutral facial expressions; however, the discrimination of negative from neutral facial expressions was not reliable (AUC = .58). Automatically detected a priori action unit (AU) configurations for distinguishing positive from negative facial expressions based on existing literature were also not reliable. A parsimonious approach using only automatically detected smiling (AU12) yielded good performance for discriminating positive from negative/neutral facial expressions (AUC = .86). Likewise, automatically detected brow lowering (AU3+AU4) reliably distinguished neutral from negative facial expressions (AUC = .79). These results provide initial support for the use of selected automatically detected individual facial actions to index positive and negative affect in young infants, but shed doubt on the accuracy of complex a priori formulas.
Language	English
Publishing date	2024-01-25
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	231560-9
ISSN	1554-3528 ; 0743-3808 ; 1554-351X
ISSN (online)	1554-3528
ISSN	0743-3808 ; 1554-351X
DOI	10.3758/s13428-023-02301-3
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Article ; Online: Characterising Eye Movement Events with an Unsupervised Hidden Markov Model.

Lüken, Malte / Kucharský, Šimon / Visser, Ingmar

Journal of eye movement research

2022 Volume 15, Issue 1

Abstract: Eye-tracking allows researchers to infer cognitive processes from eye movements that are classified into distinct events. Parsing the events is typically done by algorithms. Here we aim at developing an unsupervised, generative model that can be fitted ... ...

Abstract	Eye-tracking allows researchers to infer cognitive processes from eye movements that are classified into distinct events. Parsing the events is typically done by algorithms. Here we aim at developing an unsupervised, generative model that can be fitted to eye-movement data using maximum likelihood estimation. This approach allows hypothesis testing about fitted models, next to being a method for classification. We developed gazeHMM, an algorithm that uses a hidden Markov model as a generative model, has few critical parameters to be set by users, and does not require human coded data as input. The algorithm classifies gaze data into fixations, saccades, and optionally postsaccadic oscillations and smooth pursuits. We evaluated gazeHMM's performance in a simulation study, showing that it successfully recovered hidden Markov model parameters and hidden states. Parameters were less well recovered when we included a smooth pursuit state and/or added even small noise to simulated data. We applied generative models with different numbers of events to benchmark data. Comparing them indicated that hidden Markov models with more events than expected had most likely generated the data. We also applied the full algorithm to benchmark data and assessed its similarity to human coding and other algorithms. For static stimuli, gazeHMM showed high similarity and outperformed other algorithms in this regard. For dynamic stimuli, gazeHMM tended to rapidly switch between fixations and smooth pursuits but still displayed higher similarity than most other algorithms. Concluding that gazeHMM can be used in practice, we recommend parsing smooth pursuits only for exploratory purposes. Future hidden Markov model algorithms could use covariates to better capture eye movement processes and explicitly model event durations to classify smooth pursuits more accurately.
Language	English
Publishing date	2022-06-28
Publishing country	Switzerland
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	2578662-3
ISSN	1995-8692 ; 1995-8692
ISSN (online)	1995-8692
ISSN	1995-8692
DOI	10.16910/jemr.15.1.4
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Article ; Online: Impaired learning to dissociate advantageous and disadvantageous risky choices in adolescents.

Jepma, Marieke / Schaaf, Jessica V / Visser, Ingmar / Huizenga, Hilde M

Scientific reports

2022 Volume 12, Issue 1, Page(s) 6490

Abstract: Adolescence is characterized by a surge in maladaptive risk-taking behaviors, but whether and how this relates to developmental changes in experience-based learning is largely unknown. In this preregistered study, we addressed this issue using a novel ... ...

Abstract	Adolescence is characterized by a surge in maladaptive risk-taking behaviors, but whether and how this relates to developmental changes in experience-based learning is largely unknown. In this preregistered study, we addressed this issue using a novel task that allowed us to separate the learning-driven optimization of risky choice behavior over time from overall risk-taking tendencies. Adolescents (12-17 years old) learned to dissociate advantageous from disadvantageous risky choices less well than adults (20-35 years old), and this impairment was stronger in early than mid-late adolescents. Computational modeling revealed that adolescents' suboptimal performance was largely due to an inefficiency in core learning and choice processes. Specifically, adolescents used a simpler, suboptimal, expectation-updating process and a more stochastic choice policy. In addition, the modeling results suggested that adolescents, but not adults, overvalued the highest rewards. Finally, an exploratory latent-mixture model analysis indicated that a substantial proportion of the participants in each age group did not engage in experience-based learning but used a gambler's fallacy strategy, stressing the importance of analyzing individual differences. Our results help understand why adolescents tend to make more, and more persistent, maladaptive risky decisions than adults when the values of these decisions have to be learned from experience.
MeSH term(s)	Adolescent ; Adult ; Child ; Decision Making ; Humans ; Learning ; Reward ; Risk-Taking ; Young Adult
Language	English
Publishing date	2022-04-20
Publishing country	England
Document type	Journal Article ; Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
ZDB-ID	2615211-3
ISSN	2045-2322 ; 2045-2322
ISSN (online)	2045-2322
ISSN	2045-2322
DOI	10.1038/s41598-022-10100-7
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Article ; Online: Effects of advice on experienced-based learning in adolescents and adults.

Jepma, Marieke / Schaaf, Jessica V / Visser, Ingmar / Huizenga, Hilde M

Journal of experimental child psychology

2021 Volume 211, Page(s) 105230

Abstract: Recent studies that compared effects of pre-learning advice on experience-based learning in adolescents and adults have yielded mixed results. Previous studies on this topic used choice tasks in which age-related differences in advice-related learning ... ...

Abstract	Recent studies that compared effects of pre-learning advice on experience-based learning in adolescents and adults have yielded mixed results. Previous studies on this topic used choice tasks in which age-related differences in advice-related learning bias and exploratory choice behavior are difficult to dissociate. Moreover, these studies did not examine whether effects of advice depend on working memory load. In this preregistered study (in adolescents [13-15 years old] and adults [18-31 years old]), we addressed these issues by factorially combining advice and working memory load manipulations in an estimation task that does not require choices and hence eliminates the influence of known age-related differences in exploration. We found that advice guided participants' initial estimates in both age groups. When advice was correct, this improved estimation performance, especially in adolescents when working memory load was high. When advice was incorrect, it had a longer-lasting effect on adolescents' performance than on adults' performance. In contrast to previous findings in choice tasks, we found no evidence that advice biased learning in either age group. Taken together, our results suggest that learning in an estimation task improves between adolescence and adulthood but that the effects of advice on learning do not differ substantially between adolescents and adults.
MeSH term(s)	Adolescent ; Adult ; Exploratory Behavior ; Humans ; Learning ; Memory, Short-Term ; Young Adult
Language	English
Publishing date	2021-07-10
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article ; Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
ZDB-ID	218137-x
ISSN	1096-0457 ; 0022-0965
ISSN (online)	1096-0457
ISSN	0022-0965
DOI	10.1016/j.jecp.2021.105230
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Article ; Online: WALD-EM: Wald accumulation for locations and durations of eye movements.

Kucharský, Šimon / van Renswoude, Daan / Raijmakers, Maartje / Visser, Ingmar

Psychological review

2021 Volume 128, Issue 4, Page(s) 667–689

Abstract: Describing, analyzing, and explaining patterns in eye movement behavior is crucial for understanding visual perception. Further, eye movements are increasingly used in informing cognitive process models. In this article, we start by reviewing basic ... ...

Abstract	Describing, analyzing, and explaining patterns in eye movement behavior is crucial for understanding visual perception. Further, eye movements are increasingly used in informing cognitive process models. In this article, we start by reviewing basic characteristics and desiderata for models of eye movements. Specifically, we argue that there is a need for models combining spatial and temporal aspects of eye-tracking data (i.e., fixation durations and fixation locations), that formal models derived from concrete theoretical assumptions are needed to inform our empirical research, and custom statistical models are useful for detecting specific empirical phenomena that are to be explained by said theory. In this article, we develop a conceptual model of eye movements, or specifically, fixation durations and fixation locations, and from it derive a formal statistical model-meeting our goal of crafting a model useful in both the theoretical and empirical research cycle. We demonstrate the use of the model on an example of infant natural scene viewing, to show that the model is able to explain different features of the eye movement data, and to showcase how to identify that the model needs to be adapted if it does not agree with the data. We conclude with discussion of potential future avenues for formal eye movement models. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).
MeSH term(s)	Eye Movements ; Fixation, Ocular ; Humans ; Saccades ; Time Factors ; Visual Perception
Language	English
Publishing date	2021-05-27
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article ; Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
ZDB-ID	209907-x
ISSN	1939-1471 ; 0033-295X
ISSN (online)	1939-1471
ISSN	0033-295X
DOI	10.1037/rev0000292
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Article ; Online: Cognitive and psychometric modelling of responses and response times.

Molenaar, Dylan / Visser, Ingmar

The British journal of mathematical and statistical psychology

2017 Volume 70, Issue 2, Page(s) 185–186

Language	English
Publishing date	2017
Publishing country	England
Document type	Editorial ; Introductory Journal Article
ZDB-ID	218109-5
ISSN	2044-8317 ; 0007-1102
ISSN (online)	2044-8317
ISSN	0007-1102
DOI	10.1111/bmsp.12102
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Article ; Online: Parameter recovery, bias and standard errors in the linear ballistic accumulator model.

Visser, Ingmar / Poessé, Rens

The British journal of mathematical and statistical psychology

2017 Volume 70, Issue 2, Page(s) 280–296

Abstract: The linear ballistic accumulator (LBA) model (Brown & Heathcote, , Cogn. Psychol., 57, 153) is increasingly popular in modelling response times from experimental data. An R package, glba, has been developed to fit the LBA model using maximum likelihood ... ...

Abstract	The linear ballistic accumulator (LBA) model (Brown & Heathcote, , Cogn. Psychol., 57, 153) is increasingly popular in modelling response times from experimental data. An R package, glba, has been developed to fit the LBA model using maximum likelihood estimation which is validated by means of a parameter recovery study. At sufficient sample sizes parameter recovery is good, whereas at smaller sample sizes there can be large bias in parameters. In a second simulation study, two methods for computing parameter standard errors are compared. The Hessian-based method is found to be adequate and is (much) faster than the alternative bootstrap method. The use of parameter standard errors in model selection and inference is illustrated in an example using data from an implicit learning experiment (Visser et al., , Mem. Cogn., 35, 1502). It is shown that typical implicit learning effects are captured by different parameters of the LBA model.
Language	English
Publishing date	2017-05
Publishing country	England
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	218109-5
ISSN	2044-8317 ; 0007-1102
ISSN (online)	2044-8317
ISSN	0007-1102
DOI	10.1111/bmsp.12100
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Article ; Online: Uncertainty-driven regulation of learning and exploration in adolescents: A computational account.

Jepma, Marieke / Schaaf, Jessica V / Visser, Ingmar / Huizenga, Hilde M

PLoS computational biology

2020 Volume 16, Issue 9, Page(s) e1008276

Abstract: Healthy adults flexibly adapt their learning strategies to ongoing changes in uncertainty, a key feature of adaptive behaviour. However, the developmental trajectory of this ability is yet unknown, as developmental studies have not incorporated trial-to- ... ...

Abstract	Healthy adults flexibly adapt their learning strategies to ongoing changes in uncertainty, a key feature of adaptive behaviour. However, the developmental trajectory of this ability is yet unknown, as developmental studies have not incorporated trial-to-trial variation in uncertainty in their analyses or models. To address this issue, we compared adolescents' and adults' trial-to-trial dynamics of uncertainty, learning rate, and exploration in two tasks that assess learning in noisy but otherwise stable environments. In an estimation task-which provides direct indices of trial-specific learning rate-both age groups reduced their learning rate over time, as self-reported uncertainty decreased. Accordingly, the estimation data in both groups was better explained by a Bayesian model with dynamic learning rate (Kalman filter) than by conventional reinforcement-learning models. Furthermore, adolescents' learning rates asymptoted at a higher level, reflecting an over-weighting of the most recent outcome, and the estimated Kalman-filter parameters suggested that this was due to an overestimation of environmental volatility. In a choice task, both age groups became more likely to choose the higher-valued option over time, but this increase in choice accuracy was smaller in the adolescents. In contrast to the estimation task, we found no evidence for a Bayesian expectation-updating process in the choice task, suggesting that estimation and choice tasks engage different learning processes. However, our modeling results of the choice task suggested that both age groups reduced their degree of exploration over time, and that the adolescents explored overall more than the adults. Finally, age-related differences in exploration parameters from fits to the choice data were mediated by participants' volatility parameter from fits to the estimation data. Together, these results suggest that adolescents overestimate the rate of environmental change, resulting in elevated learning rates and increased exploration, which may help understand developmental changes in learning and decision-making.
MeSH term(s)	Adaptation, Psychological/physiology ; Adolescent ; Adult ; Algorithms ; Bayes Theorem ; Computational Biology ; Exploratory Behavior/physiology ; Female ; Humans ; Learning/physiology ; Male ; Models, Psychological ; Task Performance and Analysis ; Uncertainty ; Young Adult
Language	English
Publishing date	2020-09-30
Publishing country	United States
Document type	Journal Article ; Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
ZDB-ID	2193340-6
ISSN	1553-7358 ; 1553-734X
ISSN (online)	1553-7358
ISSN	1553-734X
DOI	10.1371/journal.pcbi.1008276
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Article ; Online: Looking (for) patterns: Similarities and differences between infant and adult free scene-viewing patterns.

van Renswoude, Daan R / Raijmakers, Maartje E J / Visser, Ingmar

Journal of eye movement research

2020 Volume 13, Issue 1

Abstract: Systematic tendencies such as the center and horizontal bias are known to have a large influence on how and where we move our eyes during static onscreen free scene viewing. However, it is unknown whether these tendencies are learned viewing strategies ... ...

Abstract	Systematic tendencies such as the center and horizontal bias are known to have a large influence on how and where we move our eyes during static onscreen free scene viewing. However, it is unknown whether these tendencies are learned viewing strategies or are more default tendencies in the way we move our eyes. To gain insight into the origin of these tendencies we explore the systematic tendencies of infants (3 - 20-month-olds, N = 157) and adults (N = 88) in three different scene viewing data sets. We replicated com-mon findings, such as longer fixation durations and shorter saccade amplitudes in infants compared to adults. The leftward bias was never studied in infants, and our results indi-cate that it is not present, while we did replicate the leftward bias in adults. The general pattern of the results highlights the similarity between infant and adult eye movements. Similar to adults, infants' fixation durations increase with viewing time and the depend-encies between successive fixations and saccades show very similar patterns. A straight-forward conclusion to draw from this set of studies is that infant and adult eye movements are mainly driven by similar underlying basic processes.
Language	English
Publishing date	2020-04-01
Publishing country	Switzerland
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	2578662-3
ISSN	1995-8692 ; 1995-8692
ISSN (online)	1995-8692
ISSN	1995-8692
DOI	10.16910/jemr.13.1.2
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Article ; Online: Cognitive strategies revealed by clustering eye movement transitions.

Kucharský, Šimon / Visser, Ingmar / Truțescu, Gabriela-Olivia / Laurence, Paulo G / Zaharieva, Martina / Raijmakers, Maartje E J

Journal of eye movement research

2020 Volume 13, Issue 1

Abstract: In cognitive tasks, solvers can adopt different strategies to process information which may lead to different response behavior. These strategies might elicit different eye movement patterns which can thus provide substantial information about the ... ...

Abstract	In cognitive tasks, solvers can adopt different strategies to process information which may lead to different response behavior. These strategies might elicit different eye movement patterns which can thus provide substantial information about the strategy a person uses. However, these strategies are usually hidden and need to be inferred from the data. After an overview of existing techniques which use eye movement data for the identification of latent cognitive strategies, we present a relatively easy to apply unsuper-vised method to cluster eye movement recordings to detect groups of different solution processes that are applied in solving the task. We test the method's performance using simulations and demonstrate its use on two examples of empirical data. Our analyses are in line with presence of different solving strategies in a Mastermind game, and suggest new insights to strategic patterns in solving Progressive matrices tasks.
Language	English
Publishing date	2020-02-26
Publishing country	Switzerland
Document type	Journal Article
ZDB-ID	2578662-3
ISSN	1995-8692 ; 1995-8692
ISSN (online)	1995-8692
ISSN	1995-8692
DOI	10.16910/jemr.13.1.1
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